Editing Cambodia (section)

== Radical Buddhism in Cambodia ==

The politicization of Cambodian Buddhism accelerated sharply during the Second World War. Following the fall of France in 1940 and the Japanese occupation, nationalist sentiment spread among segments of the sangha, culminating in the 1942 arrest of the monk and Pali scholar Hem Chieu on charges of anticolonial agitation.

=== The 1942 Arrest of Hem Chieu ===

Hem Chieu (1898–1943) is not a "radical Buddhist" figure in the project's left-wing sense — by his own politics he was a nationalist rather than a socialist or internationalist — but the episode surrounding his arrest is indispensable background to everything that follows, since it produced the martyr figure both the left-wing United Issarak Front and, later, the Khmer Rouge would claim as their own. A professor at the Higher School of Pali in Phnom Penh, Hem Chieu criticized French colonial reforms and was arrested in 1942, an act that triggered widespread monastic demonstrations remembered as the "Umbrella War." Sentenced to death and then reprieved to a term of life imprisonment and hard labor, he died in custody in October 1943. The reappropriation of his memory by movements he did not himself belong to illustrates how thoroughly a single nationalist martyrdom could be absorbed into later, genuinely left-wing revolutionary narratives.

=== Norodom Sihanouk and Buddhist Socialism ===

Norodom Sihanouk (1922–2012), ordained briefly as a monk after ascending the throne, led Cambodia to independence from France in 1953 and founded the ''Sangkum Reastr Niyum'' (People's Socialist Community), which swept the 1955 national election. The Sangkum's program of "Buddhist socialism" combined classical ''cakravartin'' ideals of benevolent, merit-based rule with an explicit rejection of class conflict and collectivization: Sihanouk anticipated that the wealthy would voluntarily redistribute resources once their consciences had been "pricked" by Buddhist ethics, rather than through the coercive mechanisms of Marxist revolution. This model, comparable in spirit to Buddhadasa Bhikkhu's contemporaneous "Dhammic Socialism" in Thailand, functioned in practice as a moralized liberal capitalism wrapped in soft nationalism, positioned as a bulwark against communism rather than against capital as such.<ref>Sihanouk, Norodom. Speeches and writings on Buddhist socialism, p. [TK].</ref> Sihanouk's Buddhist credibility eroded over the following decade amid state-sanctioned gambling and increasingly authoritarian tactics against political opponents; he was deposed in a March 1970 coup.

=== Tou Samouth and Son Ngoc Minh ===
{{Main|Tou Samouth}}
{{Main|Son Ngoc Minh}}

The postwar left-wing United Issarak Front was co-founded by two committed Buddhists, Tou Samouth (also known as Achar Sok, 1915–1962) and Son Ngoc Minh (also known as Achar Mean, 1920–1972), both associated with the "Umbrella War" protests that followed Hem Chieu's arrest. Samouth, an ordained monk and professor of Pali studies, helped draw substantial monastic support to the movement: at its inaugural 1950 conference, slightly more than half of the roughly two hundred delegates were monks. Along with Son Ngoc Minh, a lay preacher and ritual specialist (''achar vat'') rather than an ordained monk, Samouth co-founded the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party in 1951. As the party consolidated into the more explicitly Marxist-Leninist Communist Party of Kampuchea in 1960, with Samouth as its first secretary, its relationship to Buddhism grew more ambivalent; Samouth's sudden and unexplained death in 1962 severed the party's principal link to the sangha.

=== Buddhism under the Khmer Rouge ===

The case of the Khmer Rouge (1975–1979) requires separate and careful framing: it belongs in this narrative not as a further instance of engaged or socially reforming Buddhism but as a critical case study in the appropriation, and ultimately the destruction, of Buddhist vocabulary by an avowedly anti-religious regime. Saloth Sar — the future Pol Pot (1925–1998), and himself briefly a temple novice as a child — had as a young Paris-educated recruit written admiringly of Buddhism's compatibility with a coming "democratic regime," and argued that the French colonial administration and the Cambodian monarchy alike were "inimical to Buddhism" for placing themselves above its teachings.<ref>Chandler, David P. (1999). ''Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot''. Westview Press, p. [TK].</ref> In power, however, the Khmer Rouge declared Buddhism a "reactionary religion," destroyed temples systematically, forced monks to disrobe, and executed a substantial proportion of the clergy: of the roughly 65,000 monks and novices active in the late 1960s, fewer than 100 remained in the country by 1979, with most survivors having fled to Vietnam.<ref>Harris, Ian (2013). ''Buddhism Under Pol Pot''. Documentation Center of Cambodia, p. [TK].</ref>

At the same time, scholars including Harris and Chandler have argued that a diffuse Buddhist idiom survived, transposed into revolutionary discourse: the regime's emphasis on renunciation and self-discipline echoed Buddhist practices of self-cultivation, most vividly in the metaphor of "tempering iron" applied to political re-education, while the Pali term ''paṭiccasamuppāda'' ("dependent origination") was pressed into service as a translation for dialectical materialism. This appropriation should be read as evidence of Buddhism's cultural pervasiveness even under conditions of its attempted eradication, not as evidence that the Khmer Rouge constituted any form of Buddhist modernism.

=== Socially Engaged Buddhism after 1979 ===

The Vietnamese-installed People's Republic of Kampuchea, facing a profound legitimacy deficit after 1979, turned to Buddhism as an alternative source of authority once denied access to the monarchical tradition associated with the exiled Sihanouk. A newly re-ordained clergy under Tep Vong (b. 1932) was reconstituted under close state supervision, with ordinations initially restricted to men over fifty; restrictions eased substantially only after 1988, when Hun Sen's government reversed course and began actively courting Buddhist legitimacy.

The most internationally recognized figure of the subsequent period is Maha Ghosananda (1913–2007).

==== Maha Ghosananda and the Dhammayietra Movement ====

A monk trained in insight meditation and influenced by the Gandhian peace activism of Fujii Nichidatsu's Nipponzan Myōhōji movement, Maha Ghosananda spent the Khmer Rouge years ministering to refugees on the Thai border before becoming central to the postwar reconstruction of the Cambodian sangha. In 1992 he initiated the Dhammayietra ("Dhamma pilgrimage") movement, an annual peace walk through war-affected and heavily mined regions of the country, often skirting or entering territory still controlled by the Khmer Rouge. Later marches took up landmines (1995), deforestation (1996), and reconciliation with Khmer Rouge defectors at Pailin (1997). Often called the "Gandhi of Cambodia," Ghosananda framed the walks explicitly as an application of Buddhist non-violence to collective trauma, and as a challenge to the assumption that monastic practice required withdrawal from worldly danger.

Beyond the Dhammayietra, the 1994-founded Buddhism for Development organization has trained monks in rural development work, while "tree ordination" ceremonies — in which threatened trees are wrapped in monastic robes to discourage illegal logging, a practice adapted from Thailand — represent a further extension of engaged Buddhist practice into environmental activism. A smaller current of "human rights Buddhism" has periodically brought monks into direct confrontation with the state, most dramatically in September 1998, when monk-led protests against that year's election results were met with police gunfire and the disappearance of an estimated five to seventeen monks; this activism continues to meet resistance from both state authorities and more conservative sangha leadership, who regard it as an inappropriate politicization of religious life.