Editing SG33SHS-T (section)

== Chapter 4: Modern People Are not Satisfied with Illusory Happiness; They Want to Fully Enjoy Real Happiness in Their Everyday Lives ==

=== 17. The Powerlessness of Idealistic Spirituality ===

The third issue is that modern people do not desire the spiritualism or ecstatic states that traditional religious figures have preached but rather a comprehensive happiness that encompasses all aspects of life. What, then, is the most fundamental demand that truly reflects the nature of human beings? And how should Buddhists approach this issue?

This has already been addressed in our first two critiques, where the heavenly “beyond” refers to an ideal society on earth. Therefore, there is no such thing as a spiritual life detached from material existence; concepts like “God” or “spirit” are mere illusions that project earthly life into a heavenly image. Consequently, faith based solely on the reliance on external power is meaningless. If we understand that we must secure happiness on earth through our own efforts, then mere spiritualism can no longer be accepted. However, despite this, the majority of current religious figures resemble brave Don Quixotes, intoxicated by so-called spiritualism, consciously or unconsciously confining the masses to dark chambers of illusory happiness. They incessantly proclaim the cultivation of national spirit, practicality and strength, moral guidance of thought, and total mobilization of education, among other things.

Regarding this matter, at the Japanese Religions Conference held in Tokyo from June 5–8, 1928,<ref>''Nihon Shūkyō Taikai'' 日本宗教大会.</ref> the Minister of Education at the time, Shōda Kazue 勝田主計,<ref>Shōda Kazue (1869–1948) was a prominent statesman of the late Meiji, Taishō, and early Shōwa (1926–1989) periods.</ref> delivered a congratulatory message to the one thousand two hundred religious representatives gathered from across the country, including notable figures from Buddhism, Christianity, and Shinto. His words can be said to represent the intentions of contemporary religious practitioners:

<blockquote>
How should we overcome the social unrest that plagues the modern world? It can be said that it is complex and intertwined with numerous factors. However, if we trace it back to its origins and delve deep into its causes, we find that it is fundamentally rooted in materialism. Therefore, while various social measures may serve as symptomatic treatments, as a fundamental solution we must first strive to overcome the dominance of materialism. However, the overcoming of materialism should be pursued through an elevation of spiritual values. When people live with pure beliefs and are filled with warm compassion, the struggles over interests will cease, class conflict will gradually disappear, and a society once marked by anxiety will transform into a world of enlightenment. Nonetheless, the elevation of spiritual values ultimately relies on the power of religion. . . . Upon this occasion of the Japanese Religions Conference, I express my sincere hopes and earnestly enjoin your collective efforts.<ref>This quote may come from the conference proceedings, ''Nihon shūkyō taikai kessan hōkoku'' 日本宗教大会決算報告; see Inagaki Masami 稲垣真美, ''Budda o seoite gaitō e: Seno’o Girō to Shinkō Bukkyō Seinen Dōmei'' 仏陀を背負いて街頭へ：妹尾義郎と新興仏教青年同盟, 1974, p. 135.</ref>
</blockquote>

Clearly their intention is to elevate spiritual values, and they believe that the ultimate mission of religion is to “overcome materialism.” They view it as their task to construct an ideal society through this type of religious movement.

However, despite their best efforts, society is increasingly plagued by insecurity. Tenant farmer disputes, labor conflicts, and school disturbances not only continue to increase in number but are also becoming increasingly virulent. Moreover, the decadence of movements like “erotic, grotesque, nonsense”<ref>''Ero, guro, nansensu'' エロ、グロ、ナンセンス refers to a set of cultural trends that arose in the early Shōwa era characterized by the work of writers such as Edogawa Ranpo 江戸川乱歩 (1894–1965) and Yumeno Kyūsaku 夢野久作 (1889–1936). Clearly, Seno’o is not a fan—less because of moral fears than concerns over what might be called “bourgeois frivolousness.”</ref> continues to prevail unchecked throughout urban and rural areas. In response, so-called religious movements have proven completely ineffective in addressing these issues, exposing their ineptitude. The question arises: Why is this the case? Can we truly consider such a spiritualistic approach to be the essence of Buddhism? Should it even be considered as such? Let us examine this matter by dividing it into the following four aspects:

# The teachings of the Buddha and the patriarchs.
# The rise and fall of religious organizations and their relationship to society.
# The state of Buddhist organizations in the modern era.
# The true nature of spiritualism.

=== 18. The Teachings of the Buddha and the Patriarchs ===

==== a. The Buddha’s Teachings on Economics ====

When the Buddha attained enlightenment and began preaching, his first sermon was delivered to five religious seekers in Deer Park. The doctrine he preached was as follows:

<blockquote>
O seekers! In this world there are two extreme ways of living. One is the path of excessive desire for wealth and bodily pleasures, which ultimately leads to suffering. The other is the path of neglecting material existence and seeking only spiritual stability, which results in being trapped in worldly worries. I have escaped from these extremes and discovered the middle way. It is the path of balancing material well-being with the improvement of spiritual life, leading to infinite happiness. (''A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures'', p. 27)<ref>''Shin’yaku bukkyō seiten''. The original is found at ''Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta'', SN 61: 11. A contemporary translation of the same passage by Bhikku Bodhi may be found at: [https://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebsut001.htm “Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dharma,” BuddhaSasana], accessed September 18, 2024.</ref>
</blockquote>

The middle way entails [the teaching of] “no-self,” as mentioned above in the response to the question posed by the disciple Mālukyaputta. The practice of no-self specifically involves the practice of the Ennobling Eightfold Path, which consists of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. In essence, it means perceiving life as it is, recognizing delusions clearly, and living in accordance with the correct way of life. Delusions arise from the concepts of “self” and “desire.” Therefore, awakening entails recognizing “interdependent co-arising” and “non-self,” and engaging in mutual support and coexistence in social life. The ideal of the monastic community (sangha) embodies this principle. However, from the perspective of the middle way, the current form of conceptual spiritualism is clearly a distorted form of Buddhism. The Buddha did not ignore material existence; he insisted that the economy, which is the foundation of social life, cannot be at all neglected.

For example, in the ''Upāsaka Precepts Sutra'', it is written: “After first learning worldly matters in accordance with the Dharma and being well-versed in them, one should then seek wealth in accordance with the Dharma.”<ref>This is presumably Seno’o quoting from a Japanese rendering of a passage from the ''Ubasoku kai kyō'' 優婆塞戒経 in the ''Shin’yaku bukkyō seiten''. For the original, see ''Ubasoku kai kyō'', T no. 1488, 24: 1048c20–22. In this text, the Buddha explains the bodhisattva precepts for laypeople.</ref> As for the method of handling acquired wealth: “If one acquires wealth, one should divide it into four parts: one part should be offered to one’s parents, oneself, one’s spouse, and one’s dependents; two parts should be invested and used in business in accordance with the Dharma; and the remaining part should be saved for future needs.”<ref>T no. 1488, 24: 1048c22–24.</ref>

As for the teachings on the method of preserving this wealth: “Good man, do not donate your possessions to four types of individuals: the elderly, those who live far away, evildoers, and the powerful.”<ref>T no. 1488, 24: 1048c25–27.</ref> “Donate” here refers to entrusting or depositing money. This fourfold calculation is also mentioned in the ''Sigālovāda Sutra''<ref>DN 31; ''Zenshōkyō'' 善生経, T no. 360, 12. The focus of this text is on the “good life” for Buddhist householders.</ref> and the ''Saṃyukta Āgama''.

The ''Sigālovāda Sutra'' enumerates six causes of reckless spending, cautioning against excessive drinking, indulging in nightlife, indulging in entertainment and amusements, engaging in gambling, associating with bad companions, and succumbing to laziness. Furthermore, the Buddha emphasizes other causes of wealth depletion including calamities caused by the king (representing present-day exploitation), bandits, water disasters, fire disasters, natural wear and tear, low interest rates, failure to repay debts, destruction by enemies, and the reckless spending of wayward children.

On one occasion, a young boy named Bhaddiya approached the Buddha seeking a method to live comfortably. In response, the Buddha taught him the following “four foundations of success”:

# Skillfulness in one’s occupation: this refers to being proficient in one’s chosen profession.
# Competence in wealth management: this entails effectively managing and safeguarding one’s wealth.
# Associating with good friends who possess joyful knowledge: this involves associating with virtuous companions who lead a righteous life.
# Practicing moderation in expenditure and avoiding both extravagance and stinginess: this means living within one’s means and not falling into wastefulness or miserliness.<ref>''Dīghajāṇu (Vyagghapajja) Sutta''. A contemporary translation of the same passage from the Pali by Narada Thera (1997) is available at: [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.nara.html “Dighajanu (Vyagghapajja) Sutta: Conditions of Welfare,” Access to Insight], accessed September 18, 2024.</ref>

These teachings provide guidance on how to live a comfortable and balanced life.

Indeed, when we examine these teachings, it becomes evident that Buddhism is not merely a form of spiritual idealism. The essence of Buddhist faith lies rather in the diligent pursuit of a disciplined and rational way of practical living. It promotes the practice of a genuine middle path that differs from the formal austerities and speculative contemplation found in Brahmanism and other religious practices.

==== b. Teachings of the Sect Founders on Practical Life ====

After the passing of the Buddha, Buddhism gradually became more speculative and conceptual. However, the successive revolutionary movements that eventually arose always contained aspects of the fundamental spirit of the Buddha, adapted to the needs of their respective times.

In the fifth year of Tenchō 天長 (828), during the reign of Emperor Junna 淳和 (ca. 786–840), Kōbō Daishi 弘法大師 established a private university called Shugei Shuchiin 綜芸種智院 in Kyoto. It became famous for opening the path of learning to children of humble backgrounds. At that time, Kyoto had one national university and five other private schools, but none of them served as educational institutions for the masses; they were primarily educational establishments for the nobility. In his inaugural address, Kōbō Daishi expressed the following sentiment: “Currently, in this splendid city, there exists only one university, and there is no place for common schools. Thus there is no opportunity for children of humble backgrounds to seek knowledge.”<ref>I have not been able to locate the source of this reference.</ref> (The phrase “no opportunity to seek knowledge” implies not knowing which direction to pursue [note by Seno’o].) In the same inaugural address, we find the following demand: “The expression ‘a person cannot live on an empty gourd’ is attributed to Confucius. The saying ‘All beings depend on food and shelter’ is a teaching attributed to Śākyamuni Buddha. Therefore, if one desires to propagate the path [of the Buddha], it is essential to provide food to people without fail.”<ref>I have not been able to locate the source of this reference.</ref>

If one is a gourd hanging on a tree for a year or one hundred years, bread is of no use. However, all humans, as living beings, rely on clothing, food, and shelter. Therefore, if you seek to guide people with good thoughts, first provide them with an ample supply of bread. Kōbō Daishi was truly an outstanding social activist of his time.

While Buddhism faced difficulties during the periods of Kōbō and Dengyō 伝教,<ref>Dengyō Daishi 伝教大師 (767–822)—popularly known as Saichō 最澄—was the founder of the Japanese Tendai 天台 school. Seno’o appears to be less interested in him than in the other major Japanese Buddhist sect founders.</ref> it was Hōnen and Shinran who broke through the challenges and transformed the face of Buddhism. It is said that Hōnen instructed his students to scatter his own cremated ashes in the Kamo 鴨川 River, but particularly noteworthy is Shinran’s embrace of married life and consumption of meat, which boldly liberated Buddhism from empty spiritualism. The ''nenbutsu'' faith they advocated, with its focus on “relinquishing impure lands and aspiring for the Pure Land,”<ref>''Dabi po shalun'' 大毘婆沙論, Jp. ''Dai bibasha ron'' (Great Commentary on the Abhidharma), T no. 1545, 27: 524b9.</ref> may appear to negate reality at first glance. However, depending on how one views it, it can be seen as a religious revolution that, in stark contrast to the self-power teachings of Zen,<ref>Self-power (''jiriki'' 自力) refers to accomplishment by means of one’s own strength as contrasted with accomplishment by means of ''tariki'' 他力, the strength of another, especially the salvific power of a buddha or bodhisattva.</ref> affirmed the authentic and unadorned reality of everyday life.

When it comes to Nichiren, later followers carry him around as if he were the great champion of spiritualism. However, the same can be said about the Master [i.e., Nichiren]. Regarding his lifelong assertion found in ''On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land'', he later revealed the motive for his writings, stating: “Those who would govern the country must understand the principles of governance.”<ref>''Shuju ofurumai gosho'' 種々御振舞御書 (Collection of Various Conducts). This text provides a short autobiographical account of the later years of Nichiren’s life, including his exile on Sado 佐渡 Island and return to Mount Minobu.</ref> Social scientists assert that politics is an intensive expression of economic power. The intended purpose of ''On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land'', recommended to the Hōjō 北条 clan as a guiding principle for politics, is clearly aimed at alleviating the poverty-stricken masses of that time. Let’s examine the beginning of this work:

<blockquote>
Once there was a traveler who spoke these words in sorrow to his host: “In recent years, there have been unusual disturbances in the heavens, strange occurrences on earth, and famine and pestilence, all affecting every corner of the empire and spreading throughout the land. Oxen and horses lie dead in the streets, and the bones of the stricken crowd the highways. Over half the population has already been carried off by death, and there is hardly a single person who does not grieve.”<ref>Given that they are nearly identical, rather than translate the words of Seno’o, I have used a contemporary translation of this passage from ''On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land'', [https://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/wnd-1/Content/2 Soka Gakkai Nichiren Buddhism Library], accessed September 18, 2024, p. 6.</ref>
</blockquote>

Thus, the Master completely rejected the illusory, individualistic, speculative, unplanned, and apolitical social movements of the eight and ten schools of the period, which were both mutually opposed and self-promoting.<ref>The “eight and ten schools” (''hasshū jisshū'' 八宗十宗) refers to the ten prominent Buddhist sects in Japan by the time of Nichiren. These are the six Nara schools (Sanron 三論, Hossō 法相, Kegon 華厳, Ritsu 律, Kusha 倶舎, Jōjitsu 成実) in addition to the two major Heian schools (Tendai and Shingon), which together make up the “eight schools.” The “ten schools” comprise these eight plus the two primary Zen sects of the period (Rinzai 臨済 and Sōtō 曹洞); see [https://tinyurl.com/36jwus2w “Kyōgaku Yōgo Kensaku” 教学用語検索, SOKAnet], accessed September 18, 2024.</ref> His intention was to establish an ordered and politically oriented Buddhist revolution. This is evident in the sharp focus of the movement, which was always directed toward converting the ruling classes while regarding the devotion of the common people as secondary. And as a method for prohibiting the various sects, it is written that [Buddhists] should “cease giving alms to wicked priests and instead all come over to the side of the good,” among other things.<ref>''On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land'', [https://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/wnd-1/Content/2 Soka Gakkai Nichiren Buddhism Library], accessed September 18, 2024, p. 23.</ref> We can interpret this assertion as a call for economic sanctions, which aligns well with the earlier statement of Kōbō Daishi, who emphasized the importance of providing bread (sustenance) to individuals. In any case, it serves as strong evidence that any ideological movement that ignores the importance of basic sustenance is ultimately powerless.

I have presented a few representative examples but the essence of each sect founder’s Buddhism, despite their differing forms, was always a pure expression of compassionate love that responded to the suffering of the masses. Throughout history, the common people have always lived in deprived conditions. How could social activists who seek to alleviate their suffering be satisfied with empty preaching alone? Only when they are not, will the numerous oppressions imposed by the ruling class become instead revered scars of honor for the masses, serving as sources of lasting gratitude and aspiration.

It is true that each sect [of Buddhism] possesses a considerable amount of idealistic and spiritualistic literature. However, it will suffice to explain here that the attitudes of the founders and early leaders of these sects were not limited to the abstract beliefs or empty spiritualism that current practitioners of each sect hold.

=== 19. The Rise and Fall of Religious Organizations and Their Relationship to Society ===

==== a. The Rise and Fall [of Buddhism] in India and China ====

The next topic is a social analysis of the development of religious organizations. As we delve into this historical examination, we will undoubtedly witness the definitive defeat of so-called abstract faith and spiritualism, leaving no room for debate.

First, it is a fact that during the time of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic community thrived in direct proportion to the involvement of kings, wealthy individuals, and their power and economic resources. In the third year after the Buddha began his preaching, King Bimbisāra of Magadha embraced Buddhism and donated the Veluvana Bamboo Grove Monastery. With this, the influence of Buddhism rapidly expanded, spreading throughout the entire kingdom of Magadha, with the city of Rājagṛha as its center. It was during this time that Śāriputra, Maudgalyāyana, and hundreds of disciples entered the monastic order under the leadership of the Buddha. Prior to this, there were only around fifty or sixty disciples, but now their numbers swiftly grew to one thousand two hundred and fifty. Furthermore, there is the famous case of Anāthapiṇḍika, a wealthy merchant from Kosala who became a devotee and established the renowned Jetavana Monastery in the city of Savatthi. This grand construction consisted of sixteen large buildings, each with sixty chambers, accommodating more than a thousand Buddhist disciples. The magnificence of this monumental architecture, funded by immense wealth, initially moved the heart of Prince Jeta, who offered the land for the monastery. Subsequently, his father, King Prasenajit, also became a Buddhist believer. It goes without saying that the conversion of kings and influential individuals played a crucial role in gaining the support of the masses throughout the country.

Next, looking at the history of Buddhism after the passing of the Buddha, it can be observed that its golden age was ushered in during the reigns of Emperor Aśoka (ca. 300–232 BCE; r. ca. 269–232 BCE) and King Kaniṣka (r. 127–150). In the case of Emperor Aśoka, Buddhism started to decline around forty years after his death due to the persecution by the anti-Buddhist minister Pushyamitra, resulting in a revival of Brahmanism. Similarly, after the passing of King Kaniṣka, the fate of Buddhism was not as glorious. In China, Buddhism took root through the introduction and translation of scriptures by eminent figures such as Xuanzang 玄奘 (602–664) and Kumārajīva (Ch. Jiumoluoshi 鳩摩羅什; 344–414). However, it is undeniable that this significant undertaking also had the support of influential kings.

==== b. The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Buddhist Sects ====

This relationship [with power and wealth] was also true for Japanese Buddhism. Let’s briefly discuss the development of Buddhism in Japan. It is commonly believed that Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the sixth century, in the fourteenth year of the reign of Emperor Kinmei 欽明 [552], when Buddhist statues and scriptures were sent from the kingdom of Baekje 百濟 by King Seong 聖 [ca. 504–554; r. 523–554]. However, it is well-known that Buddhism was already nurtured by the powerful Soga clan during this early period. Regarding the sects of Japanese Buddhism, the Sanron 三論 sect was established by the [Goguryeo 高句麗] monk Hyegwan 慧灌 [Jp. Ekan; fl. 7th c.] in the second year of the Taika era [646] at the imperial court under Emperor Kōtoku 孝徳 [596–654; r. 645–654]. Then, the Hossō 法相 and Kusha 倶舎 sects were propagated by Dōshō 道昭 [629–700], and the Jōjitsu 成実 sect was established by Dōzō 道蔵 [fl. late 7th c.]. During the reign of Emperor Genmei 元明 [r. 707–715], Nara became the capital and the Kegon 華厳 sect was promoted by [the Korean monk] Simsang 審祥 [Jp. Shinjō; ?–742], while the Ritsu 律 sect was introduced by [the Chinese monk] Jianzhen 鑑真 [Jp. Ganjin (688–763)]. These six sects, known as the “six Buddhist schools of Nara,” gained popularity. However, it should be noted that all of these sects were nurtured solely by successive emperors or the nobility.

The flourishing of Heian 平安 period [794–1185] Buddhism can be attributed to the Tendai 天台 sect, centered around Mount Hiei 比叡, and the Shingon sect, centered around Mount Kōya, both of which were greatly supported by the patronage and protection of emperors Kammu 桓武 [r. 781–806] and Heijō 平城 [r. 749–758]. Thus, each of these religious organizations owned the vast temple lands (or temple fields) that were bestowed upon them, and the temples themselves expanded their territories further through acquisition and cultivation. As their economic power grew, they extended their religious networks in all directions. Regarding this matter, Hosokawa Kame’ichi 細川亀市 writes in the preface of his work, ''An Economic History of Japanese Temple Buddhism'':

<blockquote>
The temples, which clothed themselves in the guise of religion, stood firmly on a solid material foundation, possessing vast fields and facing the world. They wielded exclusive administrative and policing powers, exercising absolute control over the people without fear of anyone. This is nothing short of a remarkable spectacle in our social and economic history.

Indeed, the temples, as feudal lords, obtained such a position primarily through the temple estates, which were the very source of their activities.<ref>Hosokawa Kame’ichi, ''Nihon jiin keizai shiron, Chūsei jiryō no kenkyū'' 日本寺院経済史論・中世寺領の研究 (Tokyo: Keimeisha, 1930), p. 3. Seno’o erroneously gives the title of the book as ''Nihon jiin bukkyō keizai shiron'' 日本寺院仏教経済史論.</ref>
</blockquote>

Let’s examine a few examples to illustrate this point.

===== (i) Donations =====

In the fourteenth year of Enryaku 延暦 [795], Emperor Kammu donated one hundred ''cho'' 町 [a unit of measurement for agricultural land] of paddy fields in Ōmi 近江 to the temple of Bonshakuji 梵釈寺. Emperor Seiwa 清和 [850–881] made a donation in the sixth year of Jōgan 貞観 [864], contributing one hundred sixty-four ''cho'' of land in the Nagakami 長上 District of Tōtōmi 遠江 Province to Jōganji 貞観寺 temple. Emperor Shōmu 聖武 [701–756] made a significant donation in the first year of Tempyō 天平 [729]. He granted five thousand households and ten thousand ''cho'' of paddy fields to Tōdaiji 東大寺 temple.

===== (ii) Land Acquisition and Cultivation =====

Tōdaiji temple, in the third year of the Tenpyō-shōhō 天平勝宝 period [751], acquired four ''tan'' 反 [a unit of land measurement] and one hundred forty ''bu'' 歩 [a subunit of land measurement] of cultivated land in Takushoku 拓殖 Village, Ahai 阿拝 District, Iga 伊賀 Province. In the second year of Tenpyō-hōji 天平寶字 [758], they also purchased ten ''chōbu'' 町歩 [a unit of land measurement] of newly cultivated land in the same area for nine ''kanmon'' 貫文 [a unit of currency]. In the first year of Tenpyō-shōhō [749], Gangōji 元興寺 temple acquired seven ''dan'' 段 [a unit of area] of rice paddies in Kanda 神田 for eight ''kan'' 貫 [a unit of currency]. And in the first year of Tenpyō-shōhō, Kōfukuji 弘福寺 temple purchased twenty-one ''chōbu'' of cultivated land in Ōmi 近江 Province for two hundred and thirty ''kan''.

Furthermore, another thought-provoking matter is that temples received donations of servants and engaged in money lending at high interest rates. Here are some examples:

# Empress Kōken 孝謙 [718–770], in the first year of Tenpyō-hōji [757], donated two hundred government-owned slaves to Konkōmyōji 金光明寺. In the same year, the court noble Ōyake no Kasemaro 大宅可是麻呂 donated sixty-one slaves to Tōdaiji on two separate occasions. In the second year of the Tenpyō-jingo 天平神護 era [766], two hundred slaves, which he had purchased from the five provinces of Mino 美濃, Ōmi, Tango 丹後, Tajima 但馬, and Kawachi 河内 were sent to Tōdaiji.
# On the twenty-second day of the third year of Chōroku 長禄 [1459], a passage from the promissory note taken by Muryōjuin 無量寿院 states, “The interest rate is to add forty ''mon'' 文 per month to the principal. Next autumn, it should be returned as part of the annual tribute from the southern provinces along with the principal.”

With an interest rate of forty ''mon'' per month for every one ''kan'' of borrowed money, this is an exorbitant interest rate of 48 percent. Furthermore, it is stated that if the principal and interest are not repaid, the borrower’s fields will be confiscated. Even the awe-inspiring Great Buddha of Nara and the magnificent architecture of Hōryūji 法隆寺 were products of immense economic power derived from squeezing the impoverished farmers and their boundless labor. It is evident that the society of the Heian period developed into a feudal society ruled by the warrior class as the estates flourished.

The primary characteristic of feudal society was that each lord privately owned land and peasants. In its early stages, temples also occupied vast tracts of lands and [owned large numbers of] peasants, making them virtual rulers in the secular realm and powerful landowners. However, the wheels of history spare no prosperity from eventually declining and perishing. Even the flourishing Heian Buddhism gradually had to yield its religious authority to the emerging sects of the Kamakura period, such as Jōdo 浄土, Zen, and Nichiren. What was the reason for this shift?

One reason for the shift from Heian Buddhism to Kamakura Buddhism can be attributed to the contrast in their approaches. Traditional Buddhism in the Heian period often relied on mystical formalism and intricate speculative philosophy, while Kamakura Buddhism adopted a more straightforward and accessible approach that resonated with the contemporary needs of the people. However, an even more significant reason lies in the evident movement of economic and social relations. According to historians, the protectors dispatched by the Kamakura shogunate—who later became the warlords of the Sengoku 戦国 period—unjustly exercised their power, usurping the estates and, as a result, temples gradually lost their economic strength as their lands were taken away. Another major reason was a backlash against the oppressive tribute imposed by the imperial temples acting as local landlords. One example of this occurred in the fifth year of the Eikyō 永享 era [1434], when the inhabitants of Mount Kōya petitioned for a reduction in their tribute due to famine. In response, the temple ordered, “Pay as you have always done.” To which the peasants replied:

<blockquote>
Since we have been instructed to pay as we have always done, we will submit two ''koku'' 斗 and six ''shō'' 升 of rice, one ''koku'', eight ''shō'', and five ''gō'' 合 of miscellaneous grains, and one ''kanmon'' for public taxes. Apart from this, we make no claims to even a single portion of land from any ulterior motives.
</blockquote>

There are numerous examples like this where the circumstances led to the decline of the Buddhist institutions associated with the imperial court while Kamakura Buddhism gained popularity among the masses, received support from the feudal lords, and gradually expanded. During the tumultuous Sengoku period, when intense conflicts prevailed, Buddhist sects were also engaged in sectarian disputes. However, as the Tokugawa 徳川 shogunate entered a period of unification, the internal conflicts subsided, especially during the reign of the third shogun, Iemitsu 家光 [1604–1651], when a registry policy was implemented to suppress Christianity. In response to this policy, Buddhist [priests] gradually became civil servants of the Tokugawa government serving in the capacity of official religious practitioners. For over two hundred years, the Buddhist sects continued to indulge in decadent dreams. However, the great upheaval of loyalty to the emperor and the movement to overthrow the shogunate also manifested as a wave of anti-Buddhist sentiment. As a result, Japanese Buddhism lay in ruins before the Meiji reforms. Subsequently, under the influence of the Meiji government’s emphasis on nationalism and modernization, Japanese Buddhism experienced a revival and played an active role. However, with the recent upheaval in the social hierarchy, the Buddhist movements of the Meiji and Taishō eras are once again being pushed toward a period of reassessment as is evident in the current circumstances.

I have attempted to explore the rise and fall of Buddhist sects over a span of two thousand five hundred years, but what does this tell us? As Education Minister Shōda suggested [above], was it truly possible to “overcome materialism” through the intensification of spiritualism? No, the facts seem to have shown precisely that the opposite is the case.

=== 20. The State of Buddhist Organizations in the Modern Era ===

When we delve into the inner workings of contemporary Buddhist organizations, the nature of this problem becomes even clearer. What enables the so-called spiritual movements, such as the renowned Higashi and Nishi Honganji temples, the Nichiren, Shingon, and Zen sects, as well as various training associations and aspirational societies? Is it the power of spirituality itself? Absolutely not! The situation becomes evident when we recall the case of the [Higashi] Honganji temple’s high priest, Kubutsu 句仏,<ref>This refers to Ōtani Kōen 大谷光演 (1875–1943), twenty-third patriarch of the Higashi Honganji subsect in Kyoto, was also a haiku poet and calligrapher. He was forced to abdicate his position as head priest in August 1925 due to profligacy and poor investments.</ref> who was even deprived of his clerical status due to financial issues. In the past, he expressed his sentiments through the ''Tokyo nichinichi shinbun'' 東京日々新聞, revealing the truth. He states, “The sect’s finances require one million yen, with voluntary donations amounting to three hundred thousand yen. As a result, forced fundraising and taxation occur, leading to a degradation of the monks’ activities to that of tax collectors. The believers, too, alter their attitudes as if scheming to evade taxes. I attempted to secure our financial foundation through investment projects to promote our religious influence, but I failed miserably. However, no matter what persecution we face, I will never cease these profit-making ventures for this purpose.” This is a blatant confession that while spiritual pursuits cannot generate money, money can indeed be used to promote religious influence. In recent years, substantial fundraising, amounting to hundreds of thousands of yen, was carried out for the celebration of the Dharma succession of the head priest of Nishi Honganji, and tens of thousands of yen were raised for the memorial service of the six hundred fiftieth anniversary of Master Nichiren’s passing. Without such fundraising, neither celebration nor memorial could have come to fruition. Yet, how much of that immense wealth has truly shone as a spiritual light for the people? Indeed! Contemporary religious figures are nothing more than mammon cloaked in the guise of spiritualism. They are quintessential examples of materialism having completely overcome spiritualism. That’s why the children in both the cities and countryside sing:

<blockquote>
The priests at the temple are sermon thieves,<br>
When someone dies, they demand money,<br>
When there’s a memorial service, they demand money,<br>
If their roof is damaged, they demand money,<br>
On top of that, they spend their days playing go 碁,<br>
Drinking saké in their spacious halls.<br>
These are the guys that need the sermon!<br>
Quick! Truss them up and take them away.
</blockquote>

Perhaps there is no need to expose much more about the current life of religious organizations because it is a glaringly obvious fact that everyone can see. However, religious leaders are not ethereal beings but humans with stomachs to feed. It is only natural that people cannot persevere without bread or economic stability. Therefore, the focus of criticism should not be on their keen interest in economic life. Rather, it should be directed at the utter lack of understanding that leads them to impose so-called spiritualism on the impoverished masses, expecting nothing but obedience. This attitude exemplifies their abject compliance as religious officials.

=== 21. The True Nature of Spiritualism ===

As seen in the above description, it is evident that rather than overcoming materialistic life, spiritualism has been influenced and dominated by materialistic life and the power of ruling classes. Now, let’s delve a bit deeper and expose the true nature of sham spiritualism.

When advocates of spiritualism proclaim that “the overcoming of materialism is achieved through the intensification of spiritualism,” they must acknowledge the autonomy of ideas and thoughts within the realm of spirituality. However, we have learned through disciplines such as astronomy and geology about the process of the earth’s formation, through biology about the origins of life, and particularly through Darwin’s theory of evolution about the path of human evolution. As a result, we understand that nature and humans were not created by a god, but rather nature is itself a process of change and development, and humans are animals that emerged and evolved within nature. Therefore, we should not consider our knowledge as fixed and unchanging, but rather must explore how knowledge arises from ignorance and how imperfect and inaccurate knowledge can become more complete and accurate.

In this regard, let us consider a passage from Engels’s ''Anti-Dühring'':

<blockquote>
From whence does thought derive its principles? From within itself? No, thought can only extract and derive the forms of existence from the external world. Principles are not the starting point of research; rather, they are the ultimate result. They are not applied to nature and human history, but rather abstracted from them. The world of nature and humanity do not conform to principles; principles are only correct to the extent that they coincide with nature and history. This is the proper materialistic view of things, while Mr. Dühring’s opposing view is idealistic, completely overturning things and constructing the real world from ideas.<ref>Seno’o appears to be quoting from ''Han Dūringu ron'' 反デューリング論, the 1903 translation by Katayama Sen 片山潜 (1859–1933) of ''Anti-Dühring''—one of the first works of Marxist thought to appear in Japanese. The standard English translation of the same passage may be found at: [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch01.htm “Part I: Philosophy, III. Classification. Apriorism,” Marxist Internet Archive], accessed September 18, 2024.</ref>
</blockquote>

This response seems to be correct in this context. [Giordano] Bruno [1548–1600], believing in the heliocentric theory, was brutally executed by Christians but in the end, “the earth does indeed revolve [around the sun].”<ref>It is not clear whether Seno’o is actually quoting Bruno or simply paraphrasing his argument.</ref> It was not the idea of the earth being round that made the earth round; rather, it was the fact that the earth is round that determined the idea.

Of course, there is room for criticism and opposition to viewing thought solely within the framework of a hastily adopted materialistic theory. However, it is certain that thought is not completely independent. The Buddha taught: “By consciousness, there is mentality-materiality; by consciousness as condition, there is mentality-materiality.”<ref>Seno’o provides no citation for these passages, which appear to be from what is generally considered the first sermon offered by the Buddha, ''Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma'' (Skt. ''Dharmacakrapravartana Sutra'', SN 56: 11).</ref> He also taught: “By mentality-materiality, there is consciousness; by mentality-materiality as condition, there is consciousness”; and, “By the cessation of mentality-materiality, there is the cessation of consciousness, and by the cessation of consciousness, there is the cessation of mentality-materiality.”<ref>See previous note.</ref> Consciousness refers to the mind, while mentality-materiality refers to living beings with physical bodies. If we elevate consciousness to the level of human beings and consider mentality-materiality as nature, both are inseparable from the environment. Thus, there can be no disregard for the influence of the environment or the body on mental activities. The ''Lotus Sutra'' says, “The Dharma is without characteristics, and the seeds of buddhahood arise from conditions.”<ref>T no. 262, 9: 9b8–9.</ref> According to the Buddhist philosophy of “the inseparability of matter and mind” and “the unity of the material and the spiritual,” the more one understands life practically without separating matter and mind, the more one realizes that what is called “spirit” is merely a subjective grasp of the concrete forms of life. Therefore, one cannot help but acknowledge the significance of the conditions.

Let us take a practical example to further illustrate this point. There is a proverb that says, “The one who raises you is more important than the one who gave birth to you.” From the spiritual perspective, one might argue that the one who gave birth to you should be more appreciated. However, no matter how much we proclaim the importance of the one who gave birth, the concrete fact of being raised by a nanny or caretaker cannot be disregarded in terms of its significance as a nurturer. Similarly, the proverb “The parent-child relationship lasts a lifetime, the husband-wife relationship lasts two lifetimes, the master-servant relationship lasts three lifetimes” expresses the same idea. Even filial piety, which has been considered the foundation of a hundred virtues, does not explain why a light relationship of one lifetime is considered less significant than a heavy relationship of three lifetimes. It is precisely because the master-servant relationship provided a comfortable livelihood for the family. For humans who are born from nature, nature is primary. If we consider our thoughts and minds in the context of daily life, it is natural to acknowledge the fundamental economic relationships that underpin our lives. Disregarding or underestimating the economic aspect of life while focusing solely on spiritual matters is the inherent weakness of ineffective idealism. We do not “construct the real world from thoughts.” Rather, thoughts arise from the entirety of real-life relationships, and it is through practical application that thoughts further develop and evolve.

If we consider the essence of ''bushidō'' 武士道, which is often touted as the epitome of spiritualism, this issue becomes even clearer. There is a saying, “A samurai can go without eating, but not without a high-ranking lord!” But did they truly not consider their livelihoods? Indeed, they too are human beings who are an amalgamation of the material and the spiritual. As such, they cannot exist without sustenance. The nonchalant attitude of treating this fact as a given, referred to as ''takayōji'' 高楊子,<ref>''Takayōji'' refers to the post-prandial use of a toothpick and signifies leisure, indifference, or nonchalance.</ref> was only made possible by the provision of food and clothing from benevolent lords. Furthermore, loyalty to the lord should be understood as a form of compensation for the regular stipends they received. Various sources indicate this interpretation; see, for example, the book ''Oyabun kobun'' 親分子分 by Shirayanagi Shūko 白柳秀湖.<ref>Shirayanagi Shūko (1884–1950) was a novelist, historian, and early socialist. His work ''Oyabun kobun'' was published in 1912 (Tokyo: Chikura Shobō). ''Oyabun kobun'' refers to a system or social group that emerged during the Edo period in Japan, whereby vagrants and homeless individuals formed a type of organization or community. In this system, farmers who suffered from the decline of rural areas and oppressive governance sought to rebuild their lives by becoming followers (''kobun'') under the leadership of a boss (''oyabun'') in urban areas. The ''oyabun'' provided economic support, protection, and mediation of disputes among the members. The relationship between the ''oyabun'' and ''kobun'' was based on loyalty, mutual assistance, and a sense of belonging to a community. This system played a role in providing social and economic stability for those who had been displaced or marginalized by the societal changes of the time.</ref> Even regarding the so-called Kenmu 建武 Restoration [1333–1336], which is said to be the most remarkable revival of the national spirit, the author of ''Taiheiki'' 太平記 (''Record of the Great Peace'') offers the following criticism:

<blockquote>
The beginning of the Genkō 元弘 Civil War saw all the brave soldiers of the realm united and fiercely determined to serve the imperial forces. There is nothing else that compares to their dedication. Their only intention was to achieve merit and rewards through achieving peace in battle.<ref>''Taiheiki'' is a late fourteenth-century historical epic that chronicles the events of the Nanbokuchō 南北朝 period (1336–1392). This passage is from vol. 13, ch. 99, “The Matter of Ryōma’s Advance.” See [https://tinyurl.com/2725tkhx “Taiheiki/Kan daijūsan” 巻第十三, Wikisōsu ウィキソース], accessed November 18, 2024.</ref>
</blockquote>

Furthermore, it is stated that the reasons for this upheaval include the biased distribution of rewards, excessive taxation for the construction of the imperial palace, extreme centralization of power, and the revocation of titles from vassals, among other things. Can we not see the defeat of spiritualism depicted here as well? Truly, human culture is a blossoming flower rooted in the fundamental aspects of sexual desire and productive relations. Therefore, mere spiritual and personality-centered ideologies are empty illusions and unattainable deceptions. Regarding sexual desire, it has been a significant misconception to degrade it as mere animalistic lust. No matter how much it has been denigrated, it remains a natural and legitimate demand. How many sins have been committed due to the lack of wisdom in response to these natural urges? In the distant past, reproductive organs were revered as sacred, but the so-called spiritual and personality-centered ideologies distorted this natural purity. In fact, sexual desire should also be liberated in a human way. The recent emphasis on sex education is a welcome trend. Certainly, the fulfillment of actual life rooted in instincts and the purification of one’s character are the essential demands of a genuine human life and the fundamental impetus toward creating heaven on earth. This is indeed the path that revitalized Buddhists should follow. This issue will be further clarified and affirmed in the critique of the next chapter.