Editing SG33SHS-T (section)

== Chapter 6: Awakened Humanity Transcends Nationalism and Promotes Internationalism ==

=== 27. The Significance of Nationalism and Internationalism ===

The fifth issue concerns nationalism and internationalism. This issue is a significant problem that stands out in twentieth-century world history, and the traditionally established Buddhist sects have unquestionably sided with nationalism. The Shin sect, for example, emphasizes “imperial law as fundamental” (''ōbō ihon'' 王法為本), Shingon promotes “protecting the nation” (''chingo kokka'' 鎮護国家), Zen advocates “promoting Zen and protecting the nation” (''kōzen gokoku'' 興禅護国), and the Nichiren sect proudly wields its famous ''On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land'' to fulfill its role as a state-endorsed religion. But is this approach consistent with the true spirit of Buddhism? Is it in line with the original intentions of the respective sect founders?

In order to reexamine these questions, we should briefly explain the characteristics of nationalism and internationalism.

Nationalism is a tendency that prioritizes the maintenance and development of the nation-state, often in opposition to individualism or internationalism, with individuals or global interests being subordinate to the interests of the nation. The arguments in favor of prioritizing the maintenance and development of the nation-state are diverse. They can include the absolute belief, influenced by Hegel, that “the state is divine, and there is no wrongdoing in what the state does” or that “the state is the highest form of morality.”<ref>“Der Staat ist die göttliche Idee, wie sie auf Erden vorhanden ist” (The state is the divine idea as it exists on earth). From ''Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte'' (1837) in ''Sämtlicliche Werke'' (Stuttgart: H. Glockner, 1928), vol. 11, pp. 34–42. “Der Staat ist die Wirklichkeit der sittlichen Idee, —der sittliche Geist als der offenbarte, sich selbst deutliche, substantielle Wille, der sich denkt und weiss und das, was er weiss und insofern er es weiss, vollführt” (The state is the actuality of the ethical idea—the ethical spirit as the revealed, self-evident, substantial will, which thinks and knows itself and, insofar as it knows itself, acts). ''Grunlinien der Philosophie des Rechts'' (1821), p. 257; [https://tinyurl.com/a7fhmwm9 Zeno.org], accessed October 16, 2024.</ref> Another perspective is that the state represents the ideal form of social development, enabling humanity to lead ethical lives and enjoy proper well-being. Along these lines, nationalism values national discipline over freedom in domestic policies, while rejecting imperialism on the international stage. Moreover, nationalism emphasizes the necessity of defending the state through military force to ensure its maintenance and development. While wishing for international peace, those who hold this position tend to lack genuine goodwill toward supranational international conferences. Furthermore, nationalism views the social aspect of humanity as more essential than its national character and strongly opposes socialism or communism, which advocate for the disappearance of class conflict and the demise of the state.

Now, let us discuss internationalism. Internationalism, in contrast to nationalism, emphasizes the ideal of mutual coexistence and mutual benefit for all humanity, recognizing the importance of supranational collective interests over national interests. It advocates cooperation and mutual assistance among nations or classes. Therefore, internationalism focuses on issues such as disarmament and even the complete abolition of war, as well as international economic control. In essence, nationalism prioritizes the interests of one’s own country, while internationalism strives for global cooperation. In practical terms, nationalism tends to align with capitalism, while internationalism leans toward socialism. Thus, these two ideologies are inherently incompatible. Should Buddhism continue to align with nationalism?

=== 28. Buddhism Is a Doctrine of the Middle Way ===

Buddhism is indeed the middle way. However, the middle way does not refer to compromise or simply following a moderate path. It is the practice of comprehensive observation that transcends extremes. In Buddhist terminology, as mentioned by our Mr. Kankichi 神吉 in his work ''Clearing up the Misunderstandings of Revitalized Buddhism'', the middle way is synonymous with the Ennobling Eightfold Path, which includes right view, right intention, right effort, and so on.<ref>A core member of the Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism, Kankichi Saiji 神吉斎爾 (d.u.) authored the pamphlet “Shinkō bukkyō no gokai o toku” 新興仏教の誤解をとく in 1932 or 1933. It was published in Tokyo by the Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism.</ref> It begins with seeing the true nature of things accurately. It involves not being swayed by popular opinions, personal biases, desires, or preferences, but rather striving to see things as they truly are, free from delusions and with a selfless mindset, and practicing in accordance with this ideal. If we interpret “middle way” as “being centered on the path,” it implies engaging in the most appropriate practice according to the circumstances. In simple terms, it involves pursuing comprehensive development toward the ideal while staying firmly grounded in reality.

If we consider matters from this point of view, just as a silkworm transforms into a cocoon and then into a moth, human history is also a process of change and development. As such, I believe that Buddhism should uphold internationalism as an ideal and strive for its realization in order to eradicate the conflicts among nations caused by nationalism. I will now explain the reasons for this belief by examining human nature, historical evidence, and current practical issues.

=== 29. Internationalism is the Human Ideal ===

Hobbes discusses the origins of the state and claims that primitive humans lived in a society where individuals engaged in constant struggles driven by self-interest and selfish desires, ultimately leading to self-destructive behavior. Recognizing this, a social contract was established to control individuals, and this became the origin of the state. Plato’s theory of the ideal state divides it into several classes: the first class consists of philosophers, the second class consists of warriors, and the third class consists of farmers and merchants who make up the majority [of the population] and are driven by material desires. To control them, Plato argues for the presence of a rational philosopher class at the top, supported by a second class of warriors. Even in modern social science, the state is considered an exploitative mechanism. Regardless of the perspective, the defining characteristic of the state is its dominant power, which is exercised to address the inherent struggle and malice in human nature. The notion of the state being the highest moral authority stems from the perspective that individual conflicts are mitigated only through state control and governance, allowing people to live in peace. Nevertheless, it is a fact that humans also possess a social nature that desires peace. Locke’s theory of the origin of the state contradicts Hobbes, suggesting that primitive societies were not characterized by conflict but rather by peaceful communal living. It was only when this peace was disrupted that social control became necessary, marking the origin of the state. Aristotle’s famous saying, “Man is a political animal,” also speaks to this, as do all these [abovementioned] theories, which convey the goodness of human nature.

As can be seen from these perspectives, nationalism originates from the malignancy of human nature, while internationalism originates from the goodness of human nature, each reflecting a different aspect of humanity. However, when considering the ideal of a creative and rational human life, which of the two should be the primary focus? Criticizing this through the lens of the middle way, it becomes clear that the promotion of goodness, namely the creation of a mutually supportive society without authoritarian domination, should be the decisive solution.

Furthermore, according to Marxist state theory, which asserts that human history is a history of class struggle, there was an initial communist society without conflict at its social inception, and a future communist society without conflict is anticipated in the later history of humanity. Throughout this process, there are indeed state-based conflicts and struggles, but conflicting states with opposing interests are expected to be eliminated with the collapse of capitalism, leading humanity to evolve into a global society of mutual assistance without domination. In any case, according to the selflessness advocated by Buddhism—which perceives things as they are and adapts to the actual state of affairs—it is indeed appropriate to promote internationalism rather than nationalism.

=== 30. History Demonstrates a Trend Toward Internationalism ===

What does the historical record tell us about this issue? The most remarkable emergence of social ideologies has always occurred after wars. Taking modern examples, after the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, social ideologies arose in opposition to individualism. Similarly, after the recent world war, social ideologies emerged against nationalism. Although it is true that these developments are still incomplete in practice, this fact clearly indicates the potential for the development of internationalism. It is true that recent times have seen a notable resurgence of nationalism worldwide. However, this is a reactionary phenomenon and cannot be seen as a negation of the necessity of internationalism. On the contrary, it underscores the need for a higher level of development in internationalism. The phenomenon of nationalism does not arise naturally from the masses. Rather, it is an unnatural phenomenon that results from the conscious efforts of ruling classes, motivated by their own interests, to suppress and manipulate the socialist and internationalist consciousness and movements that have emerged strongly among the general population. While it may be temporarily possible to impose nationalist dams that impede the flow of rivers and exploit them for capitalist profit, the flowing waters have not ceased their resistance in their pursuit of the vast ocean.

Even the recent advocacy of state socialism<ref>Seno’o uses the term ''kokka shakaishugi'' 国家社会主義, which might also be translated as “national socialism.” Even admitting the blurred distinctions between national and state socialist ideologies in the early 1930s—which is perhaps especially notable in Japan, with the work of writers such as Kita Ikki 北一輝 (1883–1937) and Takabatake Motoyuki 高畠素之 (1886–1928)—Seno’o has made it clear in other writings that he has no tolerance for anything that smacks of fascism.</ref> is not evidence of the impossibility of internationalism. Rather, it can be seen as a socialist modification of nationalism, and in essence, a step toward approaching internationalism. We should pause and observe the overall trajectory of human history. What do the collapse of monarchies and the transition to republics and democratic nations in modern times signify? These phenomena should be seen as a reckoning of nationalism and an anticipation of the potential for internationalism. Entities such as the League of Nations, established in 1920, may have been a league of capitalist nations with inherent contradictions, deceits, and inadequacies, but it still provided a glimpse of internationalism. Indeed, it is said, “When a hundred rivers enter the sea, they share the same salty taste. When [people of] the four castes enter Buddhism, they become one as followers of Śākya [Buddha].”<ref>While there are a number of references to this quotation online, I have been unable to locate its original source.</ref> The ideal of “universal solidarity” is by no means a mere fantasy.

=== 31. Current International Trends ===

If we examine the current global reality, characterized by the emergence of highly interconnected economic relationships, can we not say that the facts before us eloquently explain the need to transcend nationalism and progress toward internationalism?

In his recent pamphlet titled ''National Socialism and Controlled Economy'', Hayashi Kimio 林癸未夫 writes: “While internationalism cannot be completely dismissed as an incorrect theory, I believe that as current Japanese citizens, it is only natural to act based on nationalism rather than internationalism. Japan is now facing a critical situation and international isolation, and in the face of the survival and peril of our homeland, it is not permissible to act based on internationalism.”<ref>Hayashi Kimio (1883–1947), ''Kokka shakaishugi to tōsei keizai'' 国家社会主義と統制経済 (Tokyo: Nihon Kokka Shakaishugi Gakumei, 1932), [https://tinyurl.com/pejw6j9s “National Diet Library, Next Digital Library”], accessed October 3, 2024. Hayashi was a professor of sociology at Waseda University from 1923. He specialized in social and economic policies and helped develop Japanese theories of “national socialism.” Note that in this case I have translated ''kokka shakaishugi'' as “national” rather than “state” socialism, as the emphasis for Hayashi is clearly on ethnic solidarity. While Seno’o is somewhat sympathetic to the concept of the worker’s state as a potential bridge toward international socialism (in the way of Marx), he has no time for the sort of ethno-nationalism arising at the time in Italy and Germany.</ref> We also agree that our homeland is currently experiencing “international isolation” and facing a “critical situation.” But what has caused this “isolation” and “critical situation”? Are they not the cursed results brought about by the capitalist nationalism of various countries around the world? The development of nationalism exacerbates the risk of international warfare, promotes the wasteful expansion of military armaments, and often leads to increased taxes and rising prices. These are inevitable consequences. This may present opportunities for a few industrial or financial capitalists to gain profits, but this is not a path to increased happiness for the general masses. On the contrary, they become the causes of misery and economic oppression for the majority, as theory and experience clearly demonstrate. But what makes all this possible in the first place? By viewing human history as a struggle between classes and ethnic conflicts, national socialism demands the suppression of class struggle in favor of ethnic struggle. However, ethnic conflicts in the modern era are an inevitable product of capitalism.

Therefore, the overthrow and transformation of capitalism necessarily involves the resolution of ethnic conflicts. And since the transformation of capitalism is the collective problem of the proletariat throughout the world, the international socialist movement is the true path to human liberation. In essence, the world is interconnected as a unified entity, where cultural and material forms should flow freely. This promise is increasingly being recognized in the present era of international relations. It is the delusions rooted in nationalism and associated ideologies that obstruct the development of human culture. Clearing away these ideologies is an urgent matter for humanity, and we believe that it can only be achieved through international socialist principles.

Let us consider the management of Manchukuo 満洲国 as an example.<ref>Manchukuo (Jp. ''Manshūkoku'') was the puppet state of the Empire of Japan formally established in 1932 following the Japanese invasion of the Chinese province of Manchuria.</ref> Manchukuo, said to be Japan’s lifeline, encompasses a vast territory of 77,000 ''ri'' 里, including 33,000 square ''ri'' of arable land and abundant natural resources; this is capable of accommodating over fifty million people.<ref>One Japanese ''ri'' is approximately 2.5 miles. Thus, 77,000 ''ri'' would amount to some 502,000 square miles, while 33,000 ''ri'' would comprise roughly 215,000 square miles.</ref> What makes the development of Manchukuo possible? Is it through military force? That can only be a temporary solution—those who rise by the sword will perish by the sword.<ref>Seno’o is alluding to Jesus’s words in Matthew 26:52: “All they that take up the sword shall perish by the sword.”</ref> The development of Manchukuo is only possible through an internationalist attitude that transcends self-centered calculations and through the economic cooperation and affinity between the Chinese, Japanese, and White Russian communities, among others. We may recall the words of Nanshū 南州,<ref>Nanshū was the pen name of Saigō Takamori 西鄕隆盛 (1828–1877), one of the samurai leaders of the Meiji Restoration of 1868 (though he later led the Satsuma 薩摩 Rebellion against the new government).</ref> which seem appropriate even today:

<blockquote>
Japan must engage with China on equal terms. Merely wearing Japanese clothing and standing before the Chinese people is not enough. Japan’s talented individuals should actively naturalize themselves in China. Through these individuals, China can be morally and splendidly uplifted as a righteous nation. Without such efforts, friendship between Japan and China cannot be achieved.<ref>I have not been able to locate the source of this quotation.</ref>
</blockquote>

Buddhism teaches the concept of interdependent co-arising, whereby everything is interconnected, and emphasizes a worldview in which people rely on others and struggle alongside them. The development of one country is the development of the world, and a global recession in turn affects individual nations.

This fact is evident in the relationship between Germany and other nations during the postwar reparations issue, where the nations agreed to reduce billions of dollars in reparations to a mere three billion marks and approved conditions that were close to debt forgiveness in an attempt to revive the global economy. Similarly, future issues such as war debts are also problems that can only be resolved through internationalism. Recently, the concept of self-sufficiency in the economy has been advocated, but it remains limited to certain sectors of production and is inherently impossible. Therefore, international control of the economy must increasingly be considered as a crucial issue.

Furthermore, when considering the issue of colonialism due to population growth, the necessity of internationalism is strongly felt. In such cases, proponents of reactionary nationalism may show willingness to establish their right to survival through the use of force, but such measures are by no means sustainable. Such deeds will once again trigger the evil behavior that led to world war. The world war, which lasted only five years, resulted in the deaths of millions, with around nine million soldiers killed, three and a half million disabled, and nineteen million injured, not to mention the destruction of approximately five hundred billion [yen] worth of resources. It is important to remember that the primary culprits responsible for such catastrophic damages were the very proponents of nationalist ideologies that undermined international cooperation. In a world interconnected like a chain, nation-centered nationalism eventually destroys the entire chain and, consequently, undermines the welfare of each nation. Hasn’t this fact been clearly demonstrated by the previous world war?

=== 32. The Middle Way Advocates Internationalism Rather Than Nationalism ===

For all the above reasons, Revitalized Buddhism passionately declares, “Toward internationalism, rather than nationalism!” To this, nationalists will likely object. Even Soviet Russia, which aims to prioritize production, cannot refrain from maintaining a formidable military in the current state of the world, where nations still find it necessary to possess strong armaments. Therefore, ideals like internationalism can be nothing more than a faint mirage. From the beginning, then, we are well aware that the path to achieving complete internationalism is still a distant dream. However, this is precisely why we cannot find any basis for rejecting internationalism but rather believe in the necessity of vigorously promoting it.

Furthermore, nationalists will view internationalists as unpatriotic individuals who ignore their homeland and may seek on that basis to exclude them. We, on the contrary, see nationalists as short-sighted individuals who bring harm to their own country. Patriotism does not lie solely in blind loyalty. Buddhism teaches, “One who abandons gratitude and acts without seeking reward is the true benefactor.”<ref>While I am not able to confirm this, it is possible that this quotation comes from the ''Sei shinji donin kyō'' 清信士度人経 (''Sutra on the Pure Faithful Helping Others'').</ref> “Acting without seeking reward”<ref>''Mui'' 無為 (Ch. ''wuwei''), sometimes translated as “actionless action,” is an important Daoist principle.</ref> refers to truth—to selflessness. The sage Nanshū also said, “If you do not possess the spirit of dedicating oneself to the nation by walking the path of righteousness, international relations should be avoided altogether.”<ref>Saigō Takemori, ''Saigō Nanshū ikun'' 西郷南洲遺訓 (''The Testament of Saigō Nanshū''), Tokutei Hieiri Katsudō Hōjin, Saigō Takamori Kō Hōsankai 特定非営利活動法人、西郷隆盛公奉賛会, [https://tinyurl.com/3u68pwnh accessed October 3, 2024], p. 8.</ref> Moreover, this is not about international compromise. It is precisely about the great path of world peace and mutual love among humanity. Therefore, internationalism should not contradict the true meaning of patriotism; rather, efforts to realize internationalism at the national level must embody the great bodhisattva practice by which “those who wish to become buddhas should help all sentient beings.” The fundamental aspiration of religion has been centered around beauty. For example, Nichiren’s assertion, “How could one not think of their country when they are fortunate enough to be born in this land?” reflects the content of his “thinking of the country,” which is about the truth of the homeland and not merely a nationalistic sense of patriotism. In the face of the Mongol invasion, he wrote:

<blockquote>
If it comes to pass that the Mongols draw near and our country meets its demise, it would be a lamentable affair. However, even in such a situation, if the people of Japan were to slander the ''Lotus Sutra'', they would surely fall into the Avīci hell without respite. Even if the Japanese were to exert force, the country would perish, but slandering the Dharma (committing injustice) would be even more despicable. It is comparable to using moxibustion to treat an illness and still resorting to harming others for personal gain. Though it may cause sorrow at the time, ultimately, it will bring joy later. (From ''Letter on Many in Body, One in Mind'')<ref>''Itai dōshinji no gosho'' 異体同心事御書. A contemporary translation of the same passage may be found at: [https://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/wnd-1/Content/71 “Many in Body, One in Mind,” Soka Gakkai Nichiren Buddhism Library], WND I: 71, p. 618, accessed September 18, 2024.</ref>
</blockquote>

Words uttered with such composure are certainly not those of a self-centered nationalist. They exemplify internationalism. Furthermore, the act of the young Śākyamuni Buddha leaving behind his ancestral country and entering the mountains, and the words of Jesus saying, “Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s”<ref>Matthew 22:21.</ref> were not about disregarding or being ungrateful to their homelands. On the contrary, they were firmly convinced that eternal benefits lie in the construction of a nation based on truth.

The current nationalist attitude displayed by Buddhists is truly a desecration of the sacred intentions of the founders and patriarchs of the religion. One of the reasons for the decline of religion is undoubtedly its nationalistic transformation. How can the authority of truth be upheld in a religion that has been coopted by the state? Even Gandhi taught that love for truth should be esteemed higher than love for one’s country. Religion should be the critic of the state. Religion should be the advocate of internationalism. That is true patriotism and the practice of moderation.