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=== 34. The Division and Development of Buddhism and the Character of Śākyamuni Buddha ===

When we look at the time of early Buddhism, especially in its initial period, that is, during the time when Śākyamuni Buddha was alive, naturally Śākyamuni was the sole, sacred master, and there were no sectarian divisions among his disciples. This sacred, absolute master-disciple relationship can be seen as the original form in which Buddhism developed as a religion. However, after the Buddha’s passing, the monastic community first experienced a split between the Sthaviras (Theravādins) and the Mahāsāṃghikas (Great Assembly). This was followed by further divisions and subdivisions, eventually resulting in the formation of the twenty schools, with the Sautrāntika school being the last. Even during the period of sectarian Buddhism, the force of Śākyamuni Buddha’s character continued to exert influence over all the schools. The motivation for these divisions lay in the differing interpretations of the scriptures and doctrines, shaped by the social circumstances of each community. Nevertheless, the sincere attitude of Buddhist disciples who sought to grasp the true spirit of Śākyamuni Buddha’s teachings in their respective eras demonstrates the absolute authority of his character.

After this comes the era which saw the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. The fervent study of scriptures further heightened the reverence and longing for Śākyamuni Buddha’s character. This deep longing eventually led Nāgārjuna to expound on the theory of the two truths, asserting that although the physical form of Śākyamuni Buddha may pass away, the immortal Dharma body (''dharmakāya'') exists and continues to inspire the faith of Buddhist practitioners. This understanding established the Dharma body as the object of devotion for Buddhists, as described in texts such as the ''Nirvana Sutra'': “I have already established the sutras and precepts. You, my disciples, should simply study these sutras and precepts and diligently practice them. I too am among the (monastic) sangha.”<ref>See n. 30 above regarding the source of this quotation.</ref> Or as mentioned in the ''Sutra of the Last Teachings'':

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All the practices of self-benefit and benefiting others are complete. Even if I were to dwell for a long time, there would be no further benefit. Those who should be guided, whether they are celestial beings or human beings, have already been guided. Even those who have not yet been guided have already obtained the karmic conditions for attaining enlightenment. From now on, all my disciples should widely propagate and practice these teachings, for this Dharma body of the Tathāgata is always present and yet never extinguished.<ref>Seno’o includes no citation, but he may be quoting from ''Hōōkyō'' 法王経 (Tokyo: Bukkyōkan, 1915) by Takada Dōken 高田道見 (1858–1923), pp. 79–80. The ''Sutra of the Last Teachings'', or ''Bequeathed Teachings Sutra'' (Ch. ''Yijiao jing'' 遺教経, Jp. ''Yuikyōkyō'', T no. 389), is a brief Mahayana text reporting the Buddha’s final teachings to his disciples.</ref>
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Indeed, passages like these served as the basis for affirming the eternal nature of the Buddha as experienced and instructed by the Buddha himself. These scriptures provided confirmation of the Buddha’s perpetual and indestructible existence.

Nāgārjuna’s theory of the two bodies [''nirmāṇakāya'' and ''dharmakāya''] further evolved into the three-bodies theory of Aśvaghoṣa [80–150] and later into the three- or four-bodies theories of philosophers such as Asaṅga [fl. 4th c.] and Vasubandhu [fl. 4th–5th c.], leading to a period marked by intense discussions on the nature of the Buddha’s body. In that era, various Mahayana scriptures such as the ''Prajñāpāramitā Sutras'', ''Amitāyus Sutra'', ''Mahāvairocana Sutra'', and ''Avataṃsaka Sutra'' gained popularity and competed for attention. All these texts, without exception, stemmed from the Buddha’s enlightenment experience under the Bodhi tree and aimed to explore the content of enlightenment—particularly the reaffirmation of the Buddha’s imperishable nature. Among them, the ''Lotus Sutra'' stands out as a representative scripture that vividly presents the perfected vision of the true Buddha. Without delving into a detailed explanation, the distinguishing features of the ''Lotus Sutra'' can be summarized as follows: the first half emphasizes the potential for all sentient beings to attain buddhahood, while the latter half elucidates the various aspects of the Buddha’s body, manifesting the historical Śākyamuni Buddha as the eternal, awakened Buddha of the primordial enlightenment. This scripture represents the climax of devotion to Śākyamuni Buddha and epitomizes the ongoing reappreciation of the Buddha throughout the Mahayana Buddhist tradition.

Mahayana Buddhism, the development of which can be referred to as a period of doctrinal systematization, was transmitted to Japan via Chinese Buddhism. It then further developed during the Kamakura period, a practical and religious era that showcased the characteristics of Japanese Buddhism. However, during this time, a tendency toward independent interpretation was particularly pronounced in religious matters. Sectarian conflicts were carried out vehemently and even led to a misguided disregard for Śākyamuni Buddha. For instance, Kōbō Daishi’s teaching of the inferiority of the ''Lotus Sutra''<ref>Seno’o is here referring to Nichiren’s notion of ''daisan no retsu, keron no hō'' 第三の劣・戯論の法 that criticizes Kōbō Daishi’s subordination of the ''Lotus Sutra'' to the ''Mahāvairocana'' and ''Avataṃsaka'' sutras.</ref> [in relation to the Shingon and Kegon sutras] and Hōnen’s notion of the “fivefold miscellaneous practices”<ref>''Goshu no zōgyō'' 五種雑行 is a term coined by Hōnen in his ''Senchaku hongan nenbutsu shū'' 選択本願念仏集 (''Selection of Passages on the Nenbutsu Teaching'') to refer to the five practices towards buddhas other than Amida: reciting sutras, meditating upon them, worshipping them, chanting their names, and praising them while making offerings. See T no. 2680, 83: 3b5–19.</ref> led some believers to prioritize the worship of Amida Buddha and Dainichi Nyorai while disregarding Śākyamuni Buddha. This tendency was an unavoidable result of the objective social circumstances. However, even during this period, the essence of Buddhism, which centered around Śākyamuni Buddha, returned, reestablishing the rightful lineage of Buddhism. The movement led by Master Nichiren, based on the ''Lotus Sutra'', exemplified this return. He says the following in “Concerning the Statue of Śākyamuni Buddha Fashioned by Nichigen-nyo 日眼女 (d.u.)”:

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The donor, Lady Nichigen-nyo, fashioned a three-inch wooden statue representing the unity of the Lord of the Three Realms, the Founder of the Teachings, Śākyamuni Buddha. . . . “The Life Span of the Tathāgata” chapter of the ''Lotus Sutra'' describes various teachings such as the self-body and the other-body. The eastern Pure Land buddhas, the central Mahāvairocana Buddha, the buddhas of the ten directions, the seven buddhas of the past, the buddhas of the three periods, the bodhisattvas of superior conduct, and others, such as Mañjuśrī, Śāriputra, the Great Brahma King, . . . the heavenly deities, earth deities, and so on—all of these are none other than the supreme teacher, Śākyamuni Buddha. Even the deities such as Amaterasu Ōmikami and the Great Bodhisattva Hachiman have Śākyamuni Buddha as their original source. For example, Śākyamuni Buddha is like the moon in the heavens, while all other buddhas and bodhisattvas are like the reflections shimmering upon a myriad of waters. To erect a statue of Śākyamuni is to honor all the buddhas of the ten directions. It is like shaking one’s head and causing the hair to move, or thinking with the mind and causing the body to act. When a strong wind blows, it stirs not only the grass and trees but also disturbs the vast ocean. Similarly, by reverently upholding and venerating the supreme teacher, Śākyamuni Buddha, even the unyielding plants and trees come to life.<ref>For a contemporary translation of the same passage, see [https://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/wnd-2/Content/307 “Concerning the Statue of Shakyamuni Buddha Fashioned by Nichigen-nyo,” Soka Gakkai Nichiren Buddhism Library 307], accessed September 18, 2024, pp. 811–14.</ref>
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This text, as such, must be considered one of the most vivid scriptures; it completely exalts the absolute centrality of Śākyamuni Buddha and dismisses all other contemporary ideologies. In this way, Japanese Buddhism has continued to this day, with Master Nichiren as its leader. As for the current trends in modern Buddhism, as mentioned earlier, they vary. The two-thousand-five-hundred-year history of Buddhism has essentially been a quest to admire the character of Śākyamuni Buddha and explore the content of his enlightenment, developing and practicing it in different eras, all in the pursuit of the path to liberation.