Editing SG33SHS-T (section)

== Chapter 2: Modern Science Denies the Existence of Supernatural Gods and Buddhas and Advocates Atheism ==

=== 4. Characteristics of Religion as Explained by Social Science ===

Traditionally, the distinctive feature of religious forms can be summarized by the phrase Engels employs in his ''Essay on Feuerbach'': “If religion can exist without its God, then alchemy can exist without its philosopher’s stone.”<ref>Originally published in ''Die Neue Zeit'' 4, 5 (1886). For this English translation, see “Friedrich Engels: Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of German Classical Philosophy,” Marxist Internet Archive, accessed August 28, 2024, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1886/ludwig-feuerbach/ch03.htm. Whereas Engels used this phrase to criticize the attempt by Ludwig Feuerbach (1807–1872) to salvage a “religion” without God, Seno’o appears to be employing it to suggest that ''even'' religions without “official” gods, such as Buddhism, fall for the same “delusions” as theistic ones.</ref> Religion referred to the belief in a transcendent, absolute deity whom people worshiped and prayed to in order to seek grace and salvation. While the Christian God serves as a typical example, even the diverse Buddhist traditions, although they do not emphasize the creation of the world, still possess a similar concept of a transcendent, superhuman absolute. Amida Buddha in Shin Buddhism, the Eternal Buddha<ref>''Kuon jitsujō no honbutsu'' 久遠実成の本仏 (lit. the “True Buddha of Eternal Realization”) is a concept found in the''Lotus Sutra''that suggests that rather than attaining enlightenment at the age of thirty, Śākyamuni Buddha had already attained buddhahood in the distant past. See, for example, ch. 16: “The Life Span of the Tathāgata” (T no. 262, 9: 774c–776c). However, out of compassion he chose to manifest in human form via many rebirths before finally being born as Śākyamuni Buddha and attaining enlightenment.</ref> in Nichiren Buddhism, and Dainichi Nyorai<ref>Skt. Mahāvairocana, also known as the Great Sun, or Cosmic, Buddha.</ref> in Shingon Buddhism, among others, all fall into this category. In Zen Buddhism, the original teachings do not inherently involve such an absolute being, but in practice, various deities like Yakushi Nyorai 薬師如来<ref>Skt. Bhaisajyaguru, also known as the Medicine Buddha.</ref> and Kannon 観音 Bodhisattva are worshiped indiscriminately. However, one may question whether these transcendent deities truly exist, and furthermore, whether Buddhism originally took such form? The answer [to both of these questions] is, of course, “No”!

Marxism is an ideology that vividly denies the existence of such [transcendent] beings. According to Marxism, all religions are nothing more than “fantastic reflections in the minds of humans of external forces dominating their daily lives” (Engels).<ref>“''Anti-Dühring'' by Frederick Engels 1877; Part III: Socialism; V. State, Family, Education,” Marxist Internet Archive, accessed August 28, 2024, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch27.htm.</ref> In other words, as Marx put it, “Man created religion, religion did not create man.”<ref>Karl Marx, from the introduction to ''A Contribution to Hegel’s “Philosophy of Right”'' (1844); Marxist Internet Archive, accessed September 24, 2024, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm.</ref>

[Marxism] thus takes as its object the modes of early human existence that gave rise to religion and explains these from two perspectives.

=== 5. Ignorance Gives Birth to the Gods ===

The first point is this: Lenin said, “Fear created the gods,”<ref>V. I. Lenin, “On the Attitude of the Worker’s Party Toward Religion,” 1909. Lenin is citing Paul Henri Thiery, Baron d’Holbach, who wrote: “When we seek the origin of things, we shall find that it is ignorance and fear that created the gods; that imagination, enthusiasm, and deception have adorned or disfigured them; that weakness adores them; that credulity nourishes them; that custom respects them; and that tyranny supports them in order to take advantage of men’s blindness.” (Translation by the author.) A PDF of the original French, ''Système de la nature ou des lois du monde physique et du monde moral'' (1770), may be found at https://tinyurl.com/7a9feahj; the quotation is found on p. 423. Of course, this line of thought in the West dates back much further to classical atomists such as Epicurus.</ref> while according to [Johannes de] Gorter, inexplicable forces gave birth to them.<ref>Johannes de Gorter (1689–1762) was a Dutch physician and early modern atheist.</ref> In either case, the fear that ignorant and superstitious ancient humans felt toward “inexplicable” natural phenomena led them to believe that these phenomena were the work of “gods.” From the desire to somehow escape from unavoidable disasters, they would prostrate themselves, pray, or even offer sacrifices. Take lightning, for example. It was an incomprehensible phenomenon involving flashes and booms, and if it struck, humans and livestock would be instantly killed, and houses and buildings would be torn apart and burned. For primitive people who did not know how to avoid it, they considered this to be evidence of the absolute power of “gods.” This is similar to the way an infant perceives everything anthropomorphically. In the past, people used to perceive various mysterious natural phenomena in their daily lives, such as raging waves, and would worship the dragon god for safe navigation. [Likewise, they would] pray to the wind god for protection from wind disasters and perform rain rituals for droughts. They would view these phenomena as supernatural acts of gods and be filled with fear, earnestly seeking the appeasement of these “gods.” However, with today’s advanced human intellect, phenomena like lightning can be understood as the electrical interaction of opposing currents, and they are no longer seen as inexplicable. The fear associated with such phenomena has been completely resolved with just one or two lightning rods. Modern science has provided clear explanations for marine navigation and earthquakes whereas [in the past these phenomena] led to humans attempting to utilize various gods [to accomplish this aim].

=== 6. Economic Life Also Produces Gods ===

The second explanation is that gods are products of economic life. For example, let us examine the emergence of ''ujigami'' 氏神 (clan deities).''Ujigami''refer to the highest authority figures within a clan or lineage. In the past, members of a community relied on these authority figures for guidance in hunting, farming, and other livelihood activities. Moreover, in the face of external threats, such as attacks from other clans, they would unite around these leaders for defense and security. Naturally, these authority figures came to be revered as the heads of the clans. In the case of the Japanese emperor, for instance, it is argued that the emperor, by consolidating various clans and becoming the ultimate authority figure, embodies the concept of the highest''ujigami''. As a result, the emperor is viewed as a sacred being, symbolizing the well-being of all clans. This theory offers a plausible explanation for the reverence bestowed upon the emperor.

The origin of such ''ujigami'' can also be understood by considering Engels’s statement when discussing the origins of ethnic religions that “God assumed a form of earthly power over celestial power.”<ref>Engels certainly paraphrases this Feuerbachian idea throughout the essay but see the following note, where I suggest that Seno’o is actually using Bukharin here.</ref> It reads as follows: “The elders of the tribe organize, manage, command, and plan labor as guardians of accumulated experience in production, representing the principle of active creativity. On the other hand, the rest of the members listen obediently, accept commands, conform to the plans set from above, and act according to the will of others. These relations of production, especially when applied to the whole universe, become a model for examining human beings themselves.”<ref>Though Seno’o appears to imply that this second quote is from Engels, it is in fact taken from Nikolai Bukharin’s ''Historical Materialism: A System of Sociology'', originally published in Russian in 1925 and translated into Japanese in 1927 by Hiroshima Sadakichi 広島定吉 as ''Shiteki yuibutsuron no riron'' 史的唯物論の理論 (Komeiji Shoten), p. 296. For an English translation, see “Nikolai Bukharin, Historical Materialism, A System of Sociology,” Marxist Internet Archive, accessed September 18, 2024, https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1921/histmat/index.htm.</ref>

When we look at this in comparison with Japanese mythology, it becomes an intriguing topic. Here it is suggested that the essence of the “gods” who dominate humans essentially lies in their economic control over the earthly realm, as human beings created the illusion of gods due to their constrained economic lives. A prime example of this is the main deity of Izumo Taisha 出雲大社 (Izumo Grand Shrine), Ōkuninushi no Ōkami 大国主大神, who is considered the god of economic matters.<ref>Izumo Taisha, dedicated to the deity Ōkuninushi, is associated with creation, happiness, and good relationships, and is one of the most important, and possibly the oldest, major Shinto shrine in Japan.</ref> The concept of ''kannazuki'' 神無月<ref>''Kannazuki''falls in October. In Izumo, where the''kami''are said to gather, October is known as''kamiarizuki'' 神有月 or “the month with gods.”</ref> (the month without gods) in the lunar calendar, which refers to the absence of gods in various provinces because they gather at Izumo Grand Shrine, is another illustrative example. It signifies a time when the autumn harvest has been mostly completed, and the chiefs of each community, representing the highest authority, gather in Izumo, which was the central administrative region at that time, to hold regional conferences. During these conferences, they discuss progress reports, taxation, and plans for the following year. Therefore, it signifies a period when local leaders, representing the ''uji'' (clans), convene in Izumo to engage in discussions regarding governance and economic matters. Consequently, as society develops democratically, production systems become fully democratized and economic domination diminishes, leading to a society where individuals coexist and prosper equally; the need for such prayers to the “gods” thus naturally diminishes, and the tangible belief in them gradually disappears. In short, it is reasonable to understand that once a society reaches a stage where social life is based on equal coexistence and mutual prosperity, and production is democratically organized, the reliance on such “gods” for prayers becomes unnecessary. This is analogous to the fact that healthy individuals have no need to pray to gods or buddhas for healing, whereas sick people do.

In essence, whether it be the initial natural phenomena or the subsequent economic relationships, the true nature of the gods that were traditionally believed to exist has been fully dissected, and their illusionary nature has been thoroughly examined and accounted for through the advancement of science and the increase of productive forces. Upon full consideration, this perspective seems to be correct.

=== 7. The Salvific Power of Dubious Gods ===

Furthermore, as a method to deny the existence of omnipotent gods or buddhas from another perspective, a passage from Archbishop Brown’s book ''Communism and Christianism'' can be cited as a brilliant and insightful critique. It reads as follows:

<blockquote>If God desires something and cannot do it, then He is impotent, and this contradicts the nature of God. If He can do it but chooses not to, then He is evil. Both cases contradict the nature of God. If He neither desires it nor can do it, then He is both evil and impotent. If He both wishes to get rid of evil and can do so, which is the only conceivable way to imagine God, then how is it possible that there is evil on earth?<ref>William Montgomery Brown (1855–1937), who came to be known as “Bad Bishop Brown,” was a provocative American Episcopal clergyman and author who, after reading the works of Darwin and Marx, “converted to science” in 1913, which led to his trial for heresy in 1924—the first such prosecution of an Episcopal minister since the Reformation. Seno’o is here citing from a 1930 Japanese translation (''Kami to shihonka'' 神と資本家 [lit. God and the Capitalist; Daihōkaku Shobō]) of Brown’s 1920 work''Communism and Christianism'', subtitled “Banish Gods from Skies and Capitalists from Earth and Make the World Safe for Industrial Communism” (Galion, OH: Bradford Brown). The translator was Kamichika Ichiko 神近市子, the feminist, socialist, journalist, writer, and critic who had studied at Tsuda 津田 University and contributed to the radical feminist magazine''Seitō'' 青鞜 (Bluestocking), which ran from 1911 to 1916, after which it was suppressed by the Taishō administration for being “disruptive to society” and “injurious to public morals.” See Ian Beardsley, ''The Bluestockings of Japan: New Woman Essays and Fiction from Seitō, 1911–16'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2007), p. 12.</ref></blockquote>

This objection is valid. Indeed, if there were an omnipotent God or compassionate saviors like Amida Buddha, the Eternal Buddha, or Dainichi Nyorai, then why does society continue to suffer in such a hellish state? Even parents in ordinary households, without waiting for their children’s pleas, provide bread and clothing according to the seasons. Yet, when it comes to seeking salvation, one must plead and even then receive only a meager offering of rice and salt. If we observe the pastors and priests themselves who preach such teachings, we see how many of them expose their disgraceful behavior and hypocrisy regarding economic issues. In human life, while bread alone may not be sufficient, the resolution of the foundational issue of bread becomes even more crucial. This should be understood. However, despite this, those who forcefully propagate illusory happiness and deliberately disregard economic problems not only further prove the impotence and nonexistence of God but also commit a despicable crime by deceiving and robbing the people of true happiness. In this regard, Lenin’s criticism is appropriate.

<blockquote>Religion teaches submission and endurance on earth to those who toil and suffer throughout their lives, comforting them with the hope of heavenly rewards. However, for those who live off the labor of others, religion teaches them to practice charity on earth, thus offering a cheap way to justify their exploitative practices while selling them tickets to heavenly happiness at a considerable price. Religion is the opium of the people.<ref>V. I. Lenin, “Socialism and Religion,” ''Novaya Zhizn'' 28, December 3, 1905. An English translation, taken from ''Lenin Collected Works'', vol. 10 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), pp. 83–85, can be found at Marxist Internet Archive, accessed September 18, 2024, https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1905/dec/03.htm.</ref></blockquote>

In response to this famous charge, leading temples and religious institutions such as Higashi 東 [East] and Nishi 西 [West] Honganji 本願寺, Mount Minobu 身延, and Mount Kōya 高野 have no choice but to solemnly submit without room for rebuttal. Opium is a narcotic, and those who sell such a deceptive narcotic while disguising themselves as wise and virtuous must be considered enemies of the people. Furthermore, if we consider the prevalence [within these sects] of superstitious practices such as fortunetelling and the interpretation of good and bad luck, they reflect a complacent attitude that seeks happiness by relying on external controlling powers, disregarding social transformation and personal effort. Such superstitions may generate social sins that distort the normal evolution of culture, including the development of fields like medicine. The aversion to certain marital unions expressed in the Chinese astrological sign ''hinoe-uma'' 丙午<ref>''Hinoe-uma'', or''heigo'', refers to the forty-third year of the sexagenary cycle of the Chinese zodiac— the year of the fire horse, renowned for disasters and the birth of women destined to kill their husbands.</ref> and the reliance on the “twenty-eight mansions”<ref>''Nijū hasshuku'' 二十八宿. Ancient Chinese astronomers divided the visible stars in the sky into twenty-eight groups, called twenty-eight constellations or twenty-eight mansions, with seven constellations in each of the four cardinal directions.</ref> to determine auspicious and inauspicious dates are representative examples of foolish superstitions. The emergence of these superstitions is also related to the delusion associated with the belief in supernatural gods and buddhas. Therefore, the clarification and promotion of atheism must be an important foundational move to sweep away these superstitions wholesale.

=== 8. Buddhism Is Atheistic ===

Indeed, the belief in the existence of supernatural gods and buddhas is not inherent to Buddhism. In fact, Buddhism originally emphasized the teaching that “the supreme reality for man is man.”<ref>Here and below Seno’o cites a line from a passage that encapsulates some important elements of Marx’s critique of religion. The full extract reads as follows: “The criticism of religion ends with the teaching that ''man is the highest essence for man''—hence, with the ''categoric imperative to overthrow all relations'' in which man is a debased, enslaved, abandoned, despicable essence.” In ''A Contribution to Hegel’s “Philosophy of Right”'' (1844); Marxist Internet Archive, accessed September 18, 2024, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm.</ref>

In the religious context prior to Buddhism in India, the predominant belief system was Brahmanism, according to which the creator of the universe was the supreme god known as “Brahman” and humanity was considered his creation. It was believed that the Brahmin caste, who were born from the head of Brahman, held the highest social status and were responsible for conducting rituals and worshiping Brahman. The ''kṣatriyas'', born from the chest, belonged to the second caste associated with military and political functions. The''vaiśya''s, born from the abdomen, belonged to the third caste engaged in economic activities, and the''śūdra''s, born from the feet, belonged to the fourth caste and were considered slaves. It was believed that all aspects of their lives, including their fortunes and misfortunes, were governed by Brahman.

However, it was the Buddha himself who, after attaining enlightenment, went into the streets and decisively rejected Brahmanism and its hierarchical social structure. He introduced the teachings of the “four ennobling truths”<ref>Normally translated into English as “Four Noble Truths,”''catvāri āryasatyāni''implies something closer to “four truths for those who seek nobility (of spirit/mind/practice).”</ref> and the “twelve links of interdependent co-arising,”<ref>Here, too, I have opted for a less-common translation of''pratītya-samutpāda''than the more common “Dependent Origination” in order to emphasize—as Seno’o would no doubt prefer—the radical interdependence and''mutual relating''of all being.</ref> paving the way for a new path to liberation. Therefore, thehistorical figure who courageously challenged the dominance of Brahmanism and propagated the teachings of liberation was none other than the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama.

A specialized interpretation of the “four ennobling truths” and the “twelve links of interdependent co-arising” will be omitted here. In essence, they represent the teachings of causality and the practice of selflessness, which aim at the liberation of humanity. According to the Buddha’s understanding, all phenomena in the universe, referred to as “the world,” are not created by a “god” but exist as interdependent and constantly changing manifestations of reality. Therefore, there is no eternal and unchanging social order, nor does an absolute being called “god” exist. If one seeks something permanent, it is simply the fact of interdependence—the law of interdependent co-arising. Based on this fact, the fundamental attitude toward human liberation in daily life should naturally involve the negation of individual egos and private ownership, and instead foster a communal and cooperative social existence.

The teachings of the “three marks of existence” in Buddhism—the impermanence of all phenomena, the selflessness of all things, and the tranquility of nirvana—also serve to illustrate these principles. In essence, they convey the understanding of the above principles.

If we examine the matter further, we can find evidence in the cases of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana, two prominent Brahmin teachers with hundreds of disciples who chose to abandon Brahmanism and become disciples of the Buddha. The reason behind their decision was that one day, they heard from a fellow Buddhist disciple named Assaji that the Buddha taught, “All things arise due to causes and conditions, and they cease to exist when those causes and conditions cease.”<ref>This story can be found in ch. 16 of the ''Mahāprajñāpāramitā śāstra'', attributed to Nāgārjuna (fl. 2nd–3rd c.), T no. 1509, 25: 136a–c. An English translation is found at: [https://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/book/maha-prajnaparamita-sastra/d/doc225219.html “Part 3: Conversion of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana,” Wisdom Library], accessed September 19, 2024.</ref> Upon hearing this, Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana immediately understood the principle of the impermanence of all things, which states that anything born is subject to decay and cessation. This understanding led them to renounce their previous beliefs and embrace the teachings of the Buddha.

Truly, to attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death, one must embark upon a path of discerning understanding regarding the ironclad law of causality, which states that all living beings are subject to impermanence and will inevitably perish. Furthermore, it is said that during the Buddha’s final moments before his passing, his dear disciple Ānanda expressed sorrow over the thought of being left without the Buddha’s guidance in the future. In response to this, the Buddha provided teachings and guidance, comforting Ānanda in his grief.

<blockquote>
I have already established the sutras and precepts. You, my disciples, should simply study these sutras and precepts and diligently practice them. I too am among the (monastic) sangha.<ref>Seno’o cites the ''Nirvana Sutra'' (Skt. ''Parinirvāṇa Sutra'', Ch. ''Fo bannihuan jing'' 佛般泥洹經, Jp. ''Butsu hatsu naion kyō''), T no. 5, 1: 164c10–13, an early Chinese translation of a sutra that relays the events leading up to the end of Śākyamuni Buddha’s life. “Hatsu naion” 般泥洹 refers to the nirvana, or final extinction, of the Buddha. There is a similar passage in the (much shorter) Pali ''Mahāparinibbāna Sutta'': “It may be, Ananda, that to some among you the thought will come ‘Ended is the word of the Master; we have a Master no longer.’ But it should not, Ananda, be so considered. For that which I have proclaimed and made known as the Dhamma and the discipline, that shall be your Master when I am gone” (''Dīgha Nikāya'' [hereafter DN] 16: 6.1).</ref>
</blockquote>

In essence, this means, “Even if I pass away, the truth I have taught will not perish. If you sincerely practice this truth and do not lose it, I will always exist among the community of bhikkus, just as before.” Similarly, the passage “O bhikkus, rely on yourselves as the lamp and rely on the Dharma as the refuge, and do not rely on anything else as the lamp or as the refuge”<ref>''Mahāparinibbāna Sutta'', DN 16: 12. An English version may be found at [https://tinyurl.com/596xmjwu https://tinyurl.com/596xmjwu].</ref> from the ''Nirvana Sutra'' clearly denies the existence of an absolute god. In this way, fundamental Buddhism negates the existence of a transcendent absolute god. Why, then, has it transformed into the present-day form of a theistic religion? I will explain this issue in the subsequent chapters on the question of the soul.

In short, the period following the Buddha’s death was a transitional one involving various transformations due to the prevailing social circumstances. As such, correcting the distorted teachings of Buddhism today is not a blasphemy but rather a revival of true Buddhism. Dr. Takakusu 高楠 also rightly states, “Both Amida Buddha and Dainichi Nyorai are manifestations of the Buddha’s ideals, and they are the perfected forms of human beings. Therefore, they have no meaning whatsoever as creator gods, ruling gods, or gods of judgment.”<ref>Takakusu Junjirō 高楠順次郎 (1866–1945) was a prominent educator and scholar of Buddhism during the later Meiji, Taishō, and early Shōwa periods. Along with Watanabe Kaikyoku 渡辺海旭 (1872–1933), a founding member of the Meiji-era New Buddhist Fellowship, he was primarily responsible for the compilation of the Taishō canon (''Taishō shinshū daizōkyō'' 大正新脩大藏經), the definitive compendium of Chinese Buddhist texts. This passage is very likely from Takakusu’s 1930 book ''Bukkyō tetsugaku no yōtai'' 仏教哲学の要諦, translated into English as ''Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy'' in 1947 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii). While I have not been able to locate the precise passage, Takakusu makes similar claims about Amida on p. 184 of the English version. It could be that Seno’o is paraphrasing Takakusu here.</ref> If we express this in the words of Marx, as I previously quoted, “The critique of religion ends with the doctrine that the supreme reality for man is man.” Therefore, true Buddhists should praise and revere the personality of the historical Śākyamuni Buddha, who embodied the ideals of Buddhism. Worshiping abstract Buddhas like Amida as existing, absolute beings is now one hundred percent nonsensical. We must completely resolve these matters without anxieties or attachments. Faith in the Buddha is akin to Confucians revering Confucius and communists admiring Lenin; it does not carry any theistic or external authoritarian meaning. The crux of the issue always lies in reverence for the Buddha and the contemporary practice of his teachings.

<blockquote>
O bhikkus! Even if someone is my disciple who follows behind me, holding the hem of my robe and treading in my footsteps, if that person is consumed by greed and their mind is disturbed, they are far from me, and I am also far from them. This is because they do not see the Dharma, and one who does not see the Dharma does not see me. However, even if they are a hundred miles away from me, if they have abandoned desires and possess a pure heart, they are by my side. This is because they see the Dharma, and by seeing the Dharma, they see me. (''A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures'', p. 36)<ref>This is one of a few instances where Seno’o provides a reference, complete with page number, for a passage quoted in his essay. In all such cases, his reference will be found in parentheses at the end of the passage. The title quoted here refers to the ''Shin’yaku bukkyō seiten'' 新訳仏教聖典 (Nagoya: Bukkyō Kyōkai Shuppan, 1925), edited by Kizu Muan 木津無庵 (1867–1943) with assistance from Takakusu Junjirō, is made up of transcriptions from the Taishō canon. See Greg Wilkinson and Nicholas J. Frederick, “Inventing Buddhist Bibles in Japan: From Nanjō Bun’yū to Numata Yehan,” in Jiang Wu and Greg Wilkinson, eds., ''Reinventing the Tripitaka: Transformation of the Buddhist Canon in Modern East Asia'' (Lexington Books, 2017), pp. 47–48.</ref>
</blockquote>

As is clear from this passage, since Buddha is a personified truth, there is plenty of possibility for Buddhism even in the scientific modern age. When we teach the Buddhadharma to practitioners, they naturally come to value the Buddha’s character, which leads in turn to a deeper and renewed practice. There is not a hint of irrationality here. Fundamental Buddhism was not originally opium. After all, Buddhism is atheism. “Revitalized Buddhism” must first extol this aspect and then liquidate the delusional nature of established, institutional Buddhism at the same time as we liquidate the opium-like role that established Buddhism plays in society.