LQ29CSB-T - Revision history

Lajos at 00:16, 25 July 2026

2026-07-25T00:16:56Z

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	== Notes ==		== Notes ==
	<references />		<references />

			[[category:Lin Qiuwu]]
			[[category:Translations from Chinese]]

Lajos at 00:14, 25 July 2026

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	{{~~Under Construction~~}}		{{Translation Review}}
	{{DISPLAYTITLE:Lin Qiuwu, "Class Struggle and Buddhism"}}		{{DISPLAYTITLE:Lin Qiuwu, "Class Struggle and Buddhism"}}
	Original publication: [[Lin Qiuwu]] (林秋梧) (1929). [[LQ29CSB\|〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉]] [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 7.2: 52–58.		Original publication: [[Lin Qiuwu]] (林秋梧) (1929). [[LQ29CSB\|〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉]] [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 7.2: 52–58.

Lajos at 00:08, 25 July 2026

2026-07-25T00:08:10Z

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	: "In the Land of Ultimate Bliss there are ponds of the seven precious jewels, filled with water of the eight meritorious virtues; the ponds' beds are spread purely with golden sand, and on all four sides the stairs and walkways are wrought of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Above stand towers and pavilions likewise adorned with gold and silver...; within the ponds the lotus flowers are subtle, wondrous, fragrant, and pure. Heavenly music plays without cease..., and there are ever birds of every wondrous hue..., pouring forth harmonious and elegant song."		: "In the Land of Ultimate Bliss there are ponds of the seven precious jewels, filled with water of the eight meritorious virtues; the ponds' beds are spread purely with golden sand, and on all four sides the stairs and walkways are wrought of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Above stand towers and pavilions likewise adorned with gold and silver...; within the ponds the lotus flowers are subtle, wondrous, fragrant, and pure. Heavenly music plays without cease..., and there are ever birds of every wondrous hue..., pouring forth harmonious and elegant song."

	Viewed in this light, the arrangements of the World of Ultimate Bliss may be said to have reached the very summit of perfection, with nothing left wanting. There, too, are Western-style buildings of reinforced concrete<ref name="reinforced">"Reinforced concrete" transliterates ''tiejin-kangkeli'' (鐵筋康克里), from Japanese ''tekkin konkurīto''; "asphalt," ~~below,~~ transliterates ''yasihuaertuo'' (亞斯華爾托), from Japanese ''asufaruto''—both loanwords through which 1930s Taiwanese intellectuals imported modern industrial technology terms via Japanese.</ref> ~~to shelter in, and great asphalt roads to travel upon.~~ Its transportation is orderly, needless to say, and its sanitary facilities are extremely thorough. The general populace is free not only from any anxiety over food, clothing, and shelter, but also, in its leisure hours, is free to visit bathing places, zoos, concert halls, cinemas, and other places of amusement, there to refresh and enjoy themselves. A world as utterly complete and flawless as this		Viewed in this light, the arrangements of the World of Ultimate Bliss may be said to have reached the very summit of perfection, with nothing left wanting. There, too, are Western-style buildings of reinforced concrete to shelter in, and great asphalt roads to travel upon.<ref name="reinforced">"Reinforced concrete" transliterates ''tiejin-kangkeli'' (鐵筋康克里), from Japanese ''tekkin konkurīto''; "asphalt" transliterates ''yasihuaertuo'' (亞斯華爾托), from Japanese ''asufaruto''—both loanwords through which 1930s Taiwanese intellectuals imported modern industrial technology terms via Japanese.</ref> Its transportation is orderly, needless to say, and its sanitary facilities are extremely thorough. The general populace is free not only from any anxiety over food, clothing, and shelter, but also, in its leisure hours, is free to visit bathing places, zoos, concert halls, cinemas, and other places of amusement, there to refresh and enjoy themselves. A world as utterly complete and flawless as this

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Lajos at 00:05, 25 July 2026

2026-07-25T00:05:50Z

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	: "When the Great Way was practiced, the world was shared in common by all. [The people] selected the worthy and the capable, cultivated trust, and fostered harmony; and so people did not treat only their own parents as parents, nor only their own children as children. The aged were given a fitting end, the able-bodied had employment, and the young had proper upbringing; widowers, widows, orphans, the childless, and the disabled and infirm were all provided for; men had their stations, and women had their homes. Goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented, though not necessarily hoarded for oneself; labor left unexerted was resented, though not necessarily exerted for oneself alone. For this reason, scheming was shut out and did not arise, and theft and robbery did not occur, so that the outer doors were left unbolted. This is called the Great Harmony (大同)."<ref name="datong">This passage is quoted directly from the "Liyun" (禮運, "Evolution of Rites") chapter of the ''Book of Rites'' (禮記), a foundational Confucian classic. "Great Harmony" (大同) is a longstanding East Asian political concept denoting a utopian, egalitarian commonwealth; early twentieth-century Chinese reformist and radical thinkers, most notably Kang Youwei in his ''Book of Great Harmony'' (大同書), repurposed this classical terminology to translate and legitimize Western socialist and communist ideals within an indigenous framework.</ref>		: "When the Great Way was practiced, the world was shared in common by all. [The people] selected the worthy and the capable, cultivated trust, and fostered harmony; and so people did not treat only their own parents as parents, nor only their own children as children. The aged were given a fitting end, the able-bodied had employment, and the young had proper upbringing; widowers, widows, orphans, the childless, and the disabled and infirm were all provided for; men had their stations, and women had their homes. Goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented, though not necessarily hoarded for oneself; labor left unexerted was resented, though not necessarily exerted for oneself alone. For this reason, scheming was shut out and did not arise, and theft and robbery did not occur, so that the outer doors were left unbolted. This is called the Great Harmony (大同)."<ref name="datong">This passage is quoted directly from the "Liyun" (禮運, "Evolution of Rites") chapter of the ''Book of Rites'' (禮記), a foundational Confucian classic. "Great Harmony" (大同) is a longstanding East Asian political concept denoting a utopian, egalitarian commonwealth; early twentieth-century Chinese reformist and radical thinkers, most notably Kang Youwei in his ''Book of Great Harmony'' (大同書), repurposed this classical terminology to translate and legitimize Western socialist and communist ideals within an indigenous framework.</ref>

	This passage describes precisely the condition of a classless society. The section running from "goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented" to "the outer doors were left unbolted" points explicitly to a state of production and distribution founded on equal division. From each according to his ability, to each according to his need, without the least trace of private intention; the people, each and all, exert themselves fully for the common livelihood. Within such a society, every household is provided for and every person has enough, and theft and robbery naturally do not occur. A world of this kind is what Buddhism calls the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土). The Amitabha Sutra (阿彌陀經)<ref name="amitabha">The ''Amitabha Sutra'' (阿彌陀經) is a foundational scripture of Pure Land Buddhism describing the Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂), the paradise of the Buddha Amitabha. By anchoring Marx's dictum on distribution in this canonical description of a realm "free from all suffering," Lin builds toward a radical Buddhist liberation theology, reinterpreting the sutra's paradise not as an otherworldly reward attained after death, but as a real, historical blueprint for an egalitarian, classless society to be built on earth.</ref> states: ~~"...There is a world named Ultimate Bliss. ...The sentient beings of that land know no manifold suffering but receive only every joy; hence it is named Ultimate Bliss."~~		This passage describes precisely the condition of a classless society. The section running from "goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented" to "the outer doors were left unbolted" points explicitly to a state of production and distribution founded on equal division. From each according to his ability, to each according to his need, without the least trace of private intention; the people, each and all, exert themselves fully for the common livelihood. Within such a society, every household is provided for and every person has enough, and theft and robbery naturally do not occur. A world of this kind is what Buddhism calls the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土). The Amitabha Sutra (阿彌陀經)<ref name="amitabha">The ''Amitabha Sutra'' (阿彌陀經) is a foundational scripture of Pure Land Buddhism describing the Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂), the paradise of the Buddha Amitabha. By anchoring Marx's dictum on distribution in this canonical description of a realm "free from all suffering," Lin builds toward a radical Buddhist liberation theology, reinterpreting the sutra's paradise not as an otherworldly reward attained after death, but as a real, historical blueprint for an egalitarian, classless society to be built on earth.</ref> states:

	The Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土) is by no means confined to a single location in the West; it may equally exist in the South, the North, or the East, and, moreover, human beings may construct it through their own effort. What we most idealize, then, and what we must necessarily introduce to modern people, is by no means only the Pure Land of the afterlife (來世的淨土)—the sort of thing readily believed in by old village women<ref name="oldwomen">This phrase translates a localized colloquial term (九愖婆) used in Taiwanese Hokkien to describe uneducated, superstitious older women given to folk religious practice.</ref> or old country men—but rather a present-world Pure Land (現世淨土) fully capable of demonstration through scientific theory. Should anyone therefore claim that the Pure Land proclaimed by Buddhism is nothing but an empty concept, or the illusion of a utopia,<ref name="utopia">"Utopia" is transliterated in the original as ''wutuosibang'' (烏托斯邦).</ref> that is his own error, and it cannot in the least diminish the truth of Buddhism. Concerning the state of the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, the Amitabha Sutra further states: "In the Land of Ultimate Bliss there are ponds of the seven precious jewels, filled with water of the eight meritorious virtues; the ponds' beds are spread purely with golden sand, and on all four sides the stairs and walkways are wrought of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Above stand towers and pavilions likewise adorned with gold and silver...; within the ponds the lotus flowers are subtle, wondrous, fragrant, and pure. Heavenly music plays without cease..., and there are ever birds of every wondrous hue..., pouring forth harmonious and elegant song."		: "...There is a world named Ultimate Bliss. ...The sentient beings of that land know no manifold suffering but receive only every joy; hence it is named Ultimate Bliss."

			The Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土) is by no means confined to a single location in the West; it may equally exist in the South, the North, or the East, and, moreover, human beings may construct it through their own effort. What we most idealize, then, and what we must necessarily introduce to modern people, is by no means only the Pure Land of the afterlife (來世的淨土)—the sort of thing readily believed in by old village women<ref name="oldwomen">This phrase translates a localized colloquial term (九愖婆) used in Taiwanese Hokkien to describe uneducated, superstitious older women given to folk religious practice.</ref> or old country men—but rather a present-world Pure Land (現世淨土) fully capable of demonstration through scientific theory. Should anyone therefore claim that the Pure Land proclaimed by Buddhism is nothing but an empty concept, or the illusion of a utopia,<ref name="utopia">"Utopia" is transliterated in the original as ''wutuosibang'' (烏托斯邦).</ref> that is his own error, and it cannot in the least diminish the truth of Buddhism. Concerning the state of the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, the Amitabha Sutra further states:

			: "In the Land of Ultimate Bliss there are ponds of the seven precious jewels, filled with water of the eight meritorious virtues; the ponds' beds are spread purely with golden sand, and on all four sides the stairs and walkways are wrought of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Above stand towers and pavilions likewise adorned with gold and silver...; within the ponds the lotus flowers are subtle, wondrous, fragrant, and pure. Heavenly music plays without cease..., and there are ever birds of every wondrous hue..., pouring forth harmonious and elegant song."

	Viewed in this light, the arrangements of the World of Ultimate Bliss may be said to have reached the very summit of perfection, with nothing left wanting. There, too, are Western-style buildings of reinforced concrete<ref name="reinforced">"Reinforced concrete" transliterates ''tiejin-kangkeli'' (鐵筋康克里), from Japanese ''tekkin konkurīto''; "asphalt," below, transliterates ''yasihuaertuo'' (亞斯華爾托), from Japanese ''asufaruto''—both loanwords through which 1930s Taiwanese intellectuals imported modern industrial technology terms via Japanese.</ref> to shelter in, and great asphalt roads to travel upon. Its transportation is orderly, needless to say, and its sanitary facilities are extremely thorough. The general populace is free not only from any anxiety over food, clothing, and shelter, but also, in its leisure hours, is free to visit bathing places, zoos, concert halls, cinemas, and other places of amusement, there to refresh and enjoy themselves. A world as utterly complete and flawless as this		Viewed in this light, the arrangements of the World of Ultimate Bliss may be said to have reached the very summit of perfection, with nothing left wanting. There, too, are Western-style buildings of reinforced concrete<ref name="reinforced">"Reinforced concrete" transliterates ''tiejin-kangkeli'' (鐵筋康克里), from Japanese ''tekkin konkurīto''; "asphalt," below, transliterates ''yasihuaertuo'' (亞斯華爾托), from Japanese ''asufaruto''—both loanwords through which 1930s Taiwanese intellectuals imported modern industrial technology terms via Japanese.</ref> to shelter in, and great asphalt roads to travel upon. Its transportation is orderly, needless to say, and its sanitary facilities are extremely thorough. The general populace is free not only from any anxiety over food, clothing, and shelter, but also, in its leisure hours, is free to visit bathing places, zoos, concert halls, cinemas, and other places of amusement, there to refresh and enjoy themselves. A world as utterly complete and flawless as this

Lajos at 00:04, 25 July 2026

2026-07-25T00:04:09Z

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	What is class (階級)? To answer this question we must still turn to the Marxists (馬克斯主義者) for a more precise definition. According to them, the scientific meaning of class is: "A group of people, or a segment of people, uniformly plundered, ruled, and controlled by another group; the latter constitutes the subject of society, holding the levers of economy and politics, with law as the expression of its will; the former constitutes a mere instrument of social life, occupying a position subject to economic, political, and legal disposal."<ref name="classdef">"Subject of society" (社會的主體) and "instrument of social life" (社會生活的工具) reflect classic Marxist-Leninist framing of the exploiting class as historical agent and the exploited as mere instrument. "Volitional power" (意思力), rendered here simply as "will," is a legal-philosophical term (related to the German ''Wille'') common in Japanese-influenced legal writing of the period. "Bound together," used later in this passage, translates ''jieshu'' (結束) in an archaic, Japanese-influenced sense (from ''kessoku''), meaning "to unite" or "band together," rather than its modern meaning of "to conclude" or "end."</ref> Only something of this kind may properly be called a social class. Put simply, in the scientific sense, "class" designates a group of people sharing common characteristics, and it is economy, politics, and law that produce these common characteristics. To put it differently still: class is a human collective bound together, within the process of production, by common conditions and common labor obligations.<ref name="ekimu">"Labor obligations" translates ''yiwu'' (役務, Japanese ''ekimu''), a legal-economic loanword denoting forced labor, service, or duties rendered within a production system.</ref>		What is class (階級)? To answer this question we must still turn to the Marxists (馬克斯主義者) for a more precise definition. According to them, the scientific meaning of class is: "A group of people, or a segment of people, uniformly plundered, ruled, and controlled by another group; the latter constitutes the subject of society, holding the levers of economy and politics, with law as the expression of its will; the former constitutes a mere instrument of social life, occupying a position subject to economic, political, and legal disposal."<ref name="classdef">"Subject of society" (社會的主體) and "instrument of social life" (社會生活的工具) reflect classic Marxist-Leninist framing of the exploiting class as historical agent and the exploited as mere instrument. "Volitional power" (意思力), rendered here simply as "will," is a legal-philosophical term (related to the German ''Wille'') common in Japanese-influenced legal writing of the period. "Bound together," used later in this passage, translates ''jieshu'' (結束) in an archaic, Japanese-influenced sense (from ''kessoku''), meaning "to unite" or "band together," rather than its modern meaning of "to conclude" or "end."</ref> Only something of this kind may properly be called a social class. Put simply, in the scientific sense, "class" designates a group of people sharing common characteristics, and it is economy, politics, and law that produce these common characteristics. To put it differently still: class is a human collective bound together, within the process of production, by common conditions and common labor obligations.<ref name="ekimu">"Labor obligations" translates ''yiwu'' (役務, Japanese ''ekimu''), a legal-economic loanword denoting forced labor, service, or duties rendered within a production system.</ref>

	Since class is thus bound together, within the course of production, by relations of interest, there must certainly exist the strong and the weak; that the strong constantly exploit the weak, and the weak are repeatedly subjected to extraction by the strong, follows as a matter of course and is very easy to understand.<ref name="xingcheng">"Course of production" translates ''xingcheng'' (行程), reflecting a usage current in the 1930s (influenced by Japanese ''kōtei'') and distinct from the modern term ''guocheng'' (過程).</ref>		Since class is thus bound together, within the course of production, by relations of interest, there must certainly exist the strong and the weak; that the strong constantly exploit the weak, and the weak are repeatedly subjected to extraction by the strong, follows as a matter of course and is very easy to understand.<ref name="xingcheng">"Course of production" translates ''xingcheng'' (行程), reflecting a usage current in the 1930s (influenced by Japanese ''kōtei'') and distinct from the modern term ''guocheng'' (過程).</ref> Moreover,

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	~~Moreover,~~ in former societies classes were in fact quite numerous. Ancient Roman society (羅馬社會), for instance, had patricians, knights, plebeians, and slaves; medieval society had feudal lords, vassals, guild masters,<ref name="guild">"Guild" transliterates the loanword ''jierte'' (基爾特).</ref> journeymen, and serfs, and within a single class there existed further gradations of rank. With the collapse of feudal society in the modern era and the rise of capitalist society (資本社會) in its place, however, class antagonism rapidly simplified. In modern society, accordingly, one may broadly distinguish two great classes: the propertied (有產者), who possess the organs of production (生產機關),<ref name="meansprod">"Organs of production" (生產機關) is the terminology employed in early twentieth-century Chinese and Japanese Marxist writing to denote what is now universally rendered in English as "means of production" (生產資料).</ref> and the propertyless (無產者), who do not. These two great opposing camps now scheme and strategize against one another, each resolved to fight, brazenly and without restraint, a life-or-death struggle before either will let the matter rest. This tragic and merciless combat is precisely what is called class struggle.		in former societies classes were in fact quite numerous. Ancient Roman society (羅馬社會), for instance, had patricians, knights, plebeians, and slaves; medieval society had feudal lords, vassals, guild masters,<ref name="guild">"Guild" transliterates the loanword ''jierte'' (基爾特).</ref> journeymen, and serfs, and within a single class there existed further gradations of rank. With the collapse of feudal society in the modern era and the rise of capitalist society (資本社會) in its place, however, class antagonism rapidly simplified. In modern society, accordingly, one may broadly distinguish two great classes: the propertied (有產者), who possess the organs of production (生產機關),<ref name="meansprod">"Organs of production" (生產機關) is the terminology employed in early twentieth-century Chinese and Japanese Marxist writing to denote what is now universally rendered in English as "means of production" (生產資料).</ref> and the propertyless (無產者), who do not. These two great opposing camps now scheme and strategize against one another, each resolved to fight, brazenly and without restraint, a life-or-death struggle before either will let the matter rest. This tragic and merciless combat is precisely what is called class struggle.

	What is worthy of note here is the particular method of class division that the Marxists propound. This method does not take an individual's income, wealth, or the social distribution of income as its criterion; it relies purely on relations of production (生產關係)<ref name="relprod">"Relations of production" (生產關係) renders the precise Marxist technical term (German ''Produktionsverhältnisse''), emphasizing that class is defined by one's structural relationship to ownership rather than by income or net worth.</ref> as the basis of classification. The class struggle they advocate is therefore, naturally, not a matter of inciting a body of unskilled workers earning thirty yuan a month to fight against a body of skilled workers earning one hundred and twenty yuan a month. Nor, at the same time, do they count as friends and comrades of the proletariat (無產者) the lower-ranking ███, earning forty or fifty yuan a month, nor the ███,<ref name="censor1">The original text is censored at two points in this sentence (indicated by ✕✕ in the source), naming specific low-ranking colonial personnel. The precise redacted terms cannot be confidently reconstructed from the available reproduction of the source; given the surrounding context—situated between low-salaried officials and government-aligned writers—they most plausibly referred to minor colonial administrative, clerical, or police functionaries, but this remains speculative.</ref> nor the so-called government-patronized journalists and literary men (御用記者文士)<ref name="yuyong">"Government-patronized" translates ''yuyong'' (御用), originally denoting imperial use, which by the 1930s had come to signify intellectuals, journalists, or artists serving as mouthpieces of the ruling colonial authority or capitalist state.</ref> whose salaries are far from generous, nor those without any fixed income who are colloquially termed lackeys. Rather, whoever acts to maintain, protect, and foster economic extraction is uniformly regarded as an enemy—that is, as belonging to the capitalist class (資本階級). Toward the old strongholds of the exploiting class, and especially its political organs, they are yet more brazen, wishing without exception to overthrow them all at a single stroke. Hence Marx's further statement: "Every class struggle is a political struggle."<ref name="manifesto1">A direct citation from Chapter 1 of the ''Communist Manifesto'': "Every class struggle is a political struggle."</ref>		What is worthy of note here is the particular method of class division that the Marxists propound. This method does not take an individual's income, wealth, or the social distribution of income as its criterion; it relies purely on relations of production (生產關係)<ref name="relprod">"Relations of production" (生產關係) renders the precise Marxist technical term (German ''Produktionsverhältnisse''), emphasizing that class is defined by one's structural relationship to ownership rather than by income or net worth.</ref> as the basis of classification. The class struggle they advocate is therefore, naturally, not a matter of inciting a body of unskilled workers earning thirty yuan a month to fight against a body of skilled workers earning one hundred and twenty yuan a month. Nor, at the same time, do they count as friends and comrades of the proletariat (無產者) the lower-ranking ███, earning forty or fifty yuan a month, nor the ███,<ref name="censor1">The original text is censored at two points in this sentence (indicated by ✕✕ in the source), naming specific low-ranking colonial personnel. The precise redacted terms cannot be confidently reconstructed from the available reproduction of the source; given the surrounding context—situated between low-salaried officials and government-aligned writers—they most plausibly referred to minor colonial administrative, clerical, or police functionaries, but this remains speculative.</ref> nor the so-called government-patronized journalists and literary men (御用記者文士)<ref name="yuyong">"Government-patronized" translates ''yuyong'' (御用), originally denoting imperial use, which by the 1930s had come to signify intellectuals, journalists, or artists serving as mouthpieces of the ruling colonial authority or capitalist state.</ref> whose salaries are far from generous, nor those without any fixed income who are colloquially termed lackeys. Rather, whoever acts to maintain, protect, and foster economic extraction is uniformly regarded as an enemy—that is, as belonging to the capitalist class (資本階級). Toward the old strongholds of the exploiting class, and especially its political organs, they are yet more brazen, wishing without exception to overthrow them all at a single stroke. Hence Marx's further statement: "Every class struggle is a political struggle."<ref name="manifesto1">A direct citation from Chapter 1 of the ''Communist Manifesto'': "Every class struggle is a political struggle."</ref>
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	There is no denying that the human standard of living (生活程度)<ref name="livingstandard">"Standard of living" translates ''shenghuo chengdu'' (生活程度), standard vocabulary of the period (influenced by Japanese ''seikatsu teido'') before the modern term ''shenghuo shuiping'' (生活水平) became current.</ref> has progressed considerably compared with former times; this is a fact no one can deny. Yet, on the other hand, economists tell us that the gap between rich and poor has never, since the beginning of recorded history, been as acute as it is today. If we take the capitalist class (資本家階級) as the sky and the working class (勞働者階級) as the earth, then although both sky and earth are rising, the earth—representing the workers' livelihood—rises only very slowly, while the sky—representing the capitalists—leaps upward with great vigor,<ref name="yongyue">"Leaps upward with great vigor" translates ''yongyue de shengteng'' (踴躍的升騰); ''yongyue'' is originally a Buddhist term for the joyful leaping described in sutras when an audience hears the Dharma, here repurposed to describe the rapid, aggressive accumulation of capitalist wealth.</ref> so that the gulf between sky and earth grows more severe with each passing year. The more severe the gap between rich and poor becomes, the more distinct human class consciousness becomes; and the more distinct class consciousness becomes, the more intense class struggle becomes. In the end, this can only conclude either in the revolutionary reconstruction of society or in the mutual ruin of both sides;<ref name="mutualruin">This formulation echoes the closing lines of Chapter 1 of the ''Communist Manifesto'' concerning the "common ruin of the contending classes."</ref> it must be one or the other.		There is no denying that the human standard of living (生活程度)<ref name="livingstandard">"Standard of living" translates ''shenghuo chengdu'' (生活程度), standard vocabulary of the period (influenced by Japanese ''seikatsu teido'') before the modern term ''shenghuo shuiping'' (生活水平) became current.</ref> has progressed considerably compared with former times; this is a fact no one can deny. Yet, on the other hand, economists tell us that the gap between rich and poor has never, since the beginning of recorded history, been as acute as it is today. If we take the capitalist class (資本家階級) as the sky and the working class (勞働者階級) as the earth, then although both sky and earth are rising, the earth—representing the workers' livelihood—rises only very slowly, while the sky—representing the capitalists—leaps upward with great vigor,<ref name="yongyue">"Leaps upward with great vigor" translates ''yongyue de shengteng'' (踴躍的升騰); ''yongyue'' is originally a Buddhist term for the joyful leaping described in sutras when an audience hears the Dharma, here repurposed to describe the rapid, aggressive accumulation of capitalist wealth.</ref> so that the gulf between sky and earth grows more severe with each passing year. The more severe the gap between rich and poor becomes, the more distinct human class consciousness becomes; and the more distinct class consciousness becomes, the more intense class struggle becomes. In the end, this can only conclude either in the revolutionary reconstruction of society or in the mutual ruin of both sides;<ref name="mutualruin">This formulation echoes the closing lines of Chapter 1 of the ''Communist Manifesto'' concerning the "common ruin of the contending classes."</ref> it must be one or the other.

	If that is so, once class struggle has been eliminated, what precisely is the condition of a classless society? More than two thousand years ago, Confucius (孔子) once stated: "When the Great Way was practiced, the world was shared in common by all. [The people] selected the worthy and the capable, cultivated trust, and fostered harmony; and so people did not treat only their own parents as parents, nor only their own children as children. The aged were given a fitting end, the able-bodied had employment, and the young had proper upbringing; widowers, widows, orphans, the childless, and the disabled and infirm were all provided for; men had their stations, and women had their homes. Goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented, though not necessarily hoarded for oneself; labor left unexerted was resented, though not necessarily exerted for oneself alone. For this reason, scheming was shut out and did not arise, and theft and robbery did not occur, so that the outer doors were left unbolted. This is called the Great Harmony (大同)."<ref name="datong">This passage is quoted directly from the "Liyun" (禮運, "Evolution of Rites") chapter of the ''Book of Rites'' (禮記), a foundational Confucian classic. "Great Harmony" (大同) is a longstanding East Asian political concept denoting a utopian, egalitarian commonwealth; early twentieth-century Chinese reformist and radical thinkers, most notably Kang Youwei in his ''Book of Great Harmony'' (大同書), repurposed this classical terminology to translate and legitimize Western socialist and communist ideals within an indigenous framework.</ref>		If that is so, once class struggle has been eliminated, what precisely is the condition of a classless society? More than two thousand years ago, Confucius (孔子) once stated:

			{{opage\|56}}

			: "When the Great Way was practiced, the world was shared in common by all. [The people] selected the worthy and the capable, cultivated trust, and fostered harmony; and so people did not treat only their own parents as parents, nor only their own children as children. The aged were given a fitting end, the able-bodied had employment, and the young had proper upbringing; widowers, widows, orphans, the childless, and the disabled and infirm were all provided for; men had their stations, and women had their homes. Goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented, though not necessarily hoarded for oneself; labor left unexerted was resented, though not necessarily exerted for oneself alone. For this reason, scheming was shut out and did not arise, and theft and robbery did not occur, so that the outer doors were left unbolted. This is called the Great Harmony (大同)."<ref name="datong">This passage is quoted directly from the "Liyun" (禮運, "Evolution of Rites") chapter of the ''Book of Rites'' (禮記), a foundational Confucian classic. "Great Harmony" (大同) is a longstanding East Asian political concept denoting a utopian, egalitarian commonwealth; early twentieth-century Chinese reformist and radical thinkers, most notably Kang Youwei in his ''Book of Great Harmony'' (大同書), repurposed this classical terminology to translate and legitimize Western socialist and communist ideals within an indigenous framework.</ref>

	This passage describes precisely the condition of a classless society. The section running from "goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented" to "the outer doors were left unbolted" points explicitly to a state of production and distribution founded on equal division. From each according to his ability, to each according to his need, without the least trace of private intention; the people, each and all, exert themselves fully for the common livelihood. Within such a society, every household is provided for and every person has enough, and theft and robbery naturally do not occur. A world of this kind is what Buddhism calls the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土). The Amitabha Sutra (阿彌陀經)<ref name="amitabha">The ''Amitabha Sutra'' (阿彌陀經) is a foundational scripture of Pure Land Buddhism describing the Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂), the paradise of the Buddha Amitabha. By anchoring Marx's dictum on distribution in this canonical description of a realm "free from all suffering," Lin builds toward a radical Buddhist liberation theology, reinterpreting the sutra's paradise not as an otherworldly reward attained after death, but as a real, historical blueprint for an egalitarian, classless society to be built on earth.</ref> states: "...There is a world named Ultimate Bliss. ...The sentient beings of that land know no manifold suffering but receive only every joy; hence it is named Ultimate Bliss."		This passage describes precisely the condition of a classless society. The section running from "goods that lay wasted upon the ground were resented" to "the outer doors were left unbolted" points explicitly to a state of production and distribution founded on equal division. From each according to his ability, to each according to his need, without the least trace of private intention; the people, each and all, exert themselves fully for the common livelihood. Within such a society, every household is provided for and every person has enough, and theft and robbery naturally do not occur. A world of this kind is what Buddhism calls the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土). The Amitabha Sutra (阿彌陀經)<ref name="amitabha">The ''Amitabha Sutra'' (阿彌陀經) is a foundational scripture of Pure Land Buddhism describing the Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂), the paradise of the Buddha Amitabha. By anchoring Marx's dictum on distribution in this canonical description of a realm "free from all suffering," Lin builds toward a radical Buddhist liberation theology, reinterpreting the sutra's paradise not as an otherworldly reward attained after death, but as a real, historical blueprint for an egalitarian, classless society to be built on earth.</ref> states: "...There is a world named Ultimate Bliss. ...The sentient beings of that land know no manifold suffering but receive only every joy; hence it is named Ultimate Bliss."

	~~{{opage\|56}}~~

	The Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土) is by no means confined to a single location in the West; it may equally exist in the South, the North, or the East, and, moreover, human beings may construct it through their own effort. What we most idealize, then, and what we must necessarily introduce to modern people, is by no means only the Pure Land of the afterlife (來世的淨土)—the sort of thing readily believed in by old village women<ref name="oldwomen">This phrase translates a localized colloquial term (九愖婆) used in Taiwanese Hokkien to describe uneducated, superstitious older women given to folk religious practice.</ref> or old country men—but rather a present-world Pure Land (現世淨土) fully capable of demonstration through scientific theory. Should anyone therefore claim that the Pure Land proclaimed by Buddhism is nothing but an empty concept, or the illusion of a utopia,<ref name="utopia">"Utopia" is transliterated in the original as ''wutuosibang'' (烏托斯邦).</ref> that is his own error, and it cannot in the least diminish the truth of Buddhism. Concerning the state of the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, the Amitabha Sutra further states: "In the Land of Ultimate Bliss there are ponds of the seven precious jewels, filled with water of the eight meritorious virtues; the ponds' beds are spread purely with golden sand, and on all four sides the stairs and walkways are wrought of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Above stand towers and pavilions likewise adorned with gold and silver...; within the ponds the lotus flowers are subtle, wondrous, fragrant, and pure. Heavenly music plays without cease..., and there are ever birds of every wondrous hue..., pouring forth harmonious and elegant song."		The Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (極樂淨土) is by no means confined to a single location in the West; it may equally exist in the South, the North, or the East, and, moreover, human beings may construct it through their own effort. What we most idealize, then, and what we must necessarily introduce to modern people, is by no means only the Pure Land of the afterlife (來世的淨土)—the sort of thing readily believed in by old village women<ref name="oldwomen">This phrase translates a localized colloquial term (九愖婆) used in Taiwanese Hokkien to describe uneducated, superstitious older women given to folk religious practice.</ref> or old country men—but rather a present-world Pure Land (現世淨土) fully capable of demonstration through scientific theory. Should anyone therefore claim that the Pure Land proclaimed by Buddhism is nothing but an empty concept, or the illusion of a utopia,<ref name="utopia">"Utopia" is transliterated in the original as ''wutuosibang'' (烏托斯邦).</ref> that is his own error, and it cannot in the least diminish the truth of Buddhism. Concerning the state of the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, the Amitabha Sutra further states: "In the Land of Ultimate Bliss there are ponds of the seven precious jewels, filled with water of the eight meritorious virtues; the ponds' beds are spread purely with golden sand, and on all four sides the stairs and walkways are wrought of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Above stand towers and pavilions likewise adorned with gold and silver...; within the ponds the lotus flowers are subtle, wondrous, fragrant, and pure. Heavenly music plays without cease..., and there are ever birds of every wondrous hue..., pouring forth harmonious and elegant song."

Lajos at 23:29, 24 July 2026

2026-07-24T23:29:43Z

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			{{DISPLAYTITLE:Lin Qiuwu, "Class Struggle and Buddhism"}}
	Original publication: [[Lin Qiuwu]] (林秋梧) (1929). [[LQ29CSB\|〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉]] [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 7.2: 52–58.		Original publication: [[Lin Qiuwu]] (林秋梧) (1929). [[LQ29CSB\|〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉]] [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 7.2: 52–58.
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Lajos at 23:21, 24 July 2026

2026-07-24T23:21:43Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:21, 24 July 2026
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	''Original publication: [[Lin Qiuwu]] (林秋梧) (1929). [[LQ29CSB\|〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉]] [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 ~~[Nan'ying Buddhism]~~ 7.2: 52–58.''		Original publication: [[Lin Qiuwu]] (林秋梧) (1929). [[LQ29CSB\|〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉]] [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 7.2: 52–58.
	__NOTOC__		__NOTOC__
	{{opage\|52}}		{{opage\|52}}

Lajos: Created page with "{{Under Construction}} ''Original publication: Lin Qiuwu (林秋梧) (1929). 〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉 [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 [Nan'ying Buddhism] 7.2: 52–58.'' NOTOC {{opage|52}} '''Class Struggle and Buddhism''' (階級鬥爭與佛教) By Lin Qiuwu (林秋梧) The slogan "class struggle" (階級鬥爭) has, since the conclusion of the European War, gradually been propagated among the working class (勞働階級)—no..."

2026-07-24T23:16:56Z

Created page with "{{Under Construction}} ''Original publication: Lin Qiuwu (林秋梧) (1929). 〈階級鬥爭與佛教〉 [Class Struggle and Buddhism]. 《南瀛佛教》 [Nan'ying Buddhism] 7.2: 52–58.'' __NOTOC__ {{opage|52}} '''Class Struggle and Buddhism''' (階級鬥爭與佛教) By Lin Qiuwu (林秋梧) The slogan "class struggle" (階級鬥爭) has, since the conclusion of the European War, gradually been propagated among the working class (勞働階級)—no..."

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