SG33SHS-T

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Today, we can see the decline of late-stage capitalism in politics and economics, and in urban and rural areas, while the lives of the masses have reached a peak of anxiety.

During this transitional period, what should we, as Buddhist practitioners who strive to live according to the noble and supreme ideal of saving humanity, do?

The sole task imposed upon us is the reorganization of Buddhism based on contemporary consciousness. This entails the establishment of an ideology and the firm belief that such an ideology should be accompanied by bold and concrete practices.

In this brief work, Chairman Seno’o 妹尾 boldly criticizes and rectifies traditional Buddhist studies, and calls for a leap toward a new era of Buddhist truth. We firmly believe that this essay will forcefully address the contradictions faced by young Buddhist practitioners in this transformative period and provide them with confidence and resolution.

We would like to express our gratitude to comrade Seno’o, Chairman of the Committee, for his great efforts in presenting this essay to the world as a part of a series of pamphlets from our League. At the same time, we eagerly await rigorous examination and sincere criticism of its contents by our comrades.

Central Executive Committee of the Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism

January 1933

Our Principles

1. We deeply revere Śākyamuni Buddha as the supreme embodiment of human character and strive to realize the construction of a buddha land based on the teachings of brotherly love and compassion.

2. We acknowledge that all existing religious organizations have become remnants that have desecrated the spirit of Buddhism, and we reject them while seeking to promote Buddhism for a new era.

3. We recognize that the current capitalist economic system is contrary to the spirit of Buddhism and hinders the well-being of the masses. We aim to reform it and bring forth a new society suited to the future.

Foreword

I was born into a Shin 真 [True Pure Land] sect family and was raised in an atmosphere of fervent nenbutsu 念仏 prayer. In the autumn of my twenty-first year, I fell gravely ill and was forced to drop out of school, teetering on the brink of death until the age of thirty. At that time, through some fateful circumstances, I seized upon the doctrine of Nichirenism and experienced a revival of health. Nichirenism was indeed for me the ultimate truth! With that conviction, for the past two two decades, I have completely devoted myself to the study and propagation of Nichirenism, often forsaking sleep and meals.

However, as a result of my efforts to sincerely embody the Buddhist spirit in which I now believed, albeit weakly, I found myself unable to restrain a fatal doubt against all established Buddhism, and I could not help but engage in thorough opposition [against institutional Buddhism].

For contemporary society, the conflicting denominations of sectarian Buddhism are no longer beneficial but rather harmful. Ideological evangelism of that sort is detestable opium for the contemporary mass movement.

In the spring of 1931, I embarked on a comprehensive assessment of Nichirenism, staking my entire life on it. Simultaneously, I began advocating for the dissolution and unification of all sectarian Buddhist denominations under the single name of the Buddha of Revitalized Buddhism while promoting a movement for the socioeconomic transformation of capitalism through collective efforts. It is important to note that there are those within the bourgeois class who merely toy with Buddhism, as well as monks and Buddhist scholars who make a living by peddling its teachings. However, if you genuinely grasp and practice the true spirit of Buddhism—the spirit of selflessness—in a timely manner, I firmly believe that you will come to share the same doubts and righteous indignation that I do.

Kōbō 弘法, Hōnen 法然, Shinran 親鸞, Dōgen 道元, Nichiren 日蓮, and the like are all exceptional pioneers who embarked on the path to buddhahood. Therefore, it is essential to show reverence and respect to them. However, to ignore the objective circumstances of our advanced modern society and to accept their teachings and rituals without question is, in fact, to tragically hinder the very practice of those predecessors who fervently dedicated themselves to the Buddha. In doing so, we are alienating [these figures and their practices] from the modern masses.

Awaken, comrades! Do not hesitate to bravely carry the torch passed on by our dead pioneers! Comrades should not cling to even the slightest bit of doubt about trusting the sect founders; our only attitude should be to “seek awakening above; benefit sentient beings below!” The times are changing! Only the brave who move forward, stepping over the corpses, are true comrades following the founders; and the founders themselves are living bodhisattvas who participate in the grand mission of building the buddha land, our ultimate ideal.

This essay, born out of such convictions, is a compilation of the reevaluation of traditional Buddhism that we attempted last year in our magazine, Revitalized Buddhism. It is aimed at reaching the masses of today and serves as a prelude to the reform of Buddhism and a physical assault on the fortress of established doctrines.

My only hope is that through the outstanding practice and understanding of comrades who fight alongside me, any immaturity and errors [found in this essay] will be rectified. It is my ultimate aspiration to truly contribute to the liberation of the masses.

January 31, 1933

In a corner of Zōshigaya 雑司ヶ谷 [Tokyo, Japan]

The author [Seno’o Girō]

Chapter 1: Introduction

1. Social Evolution

There are two attitudes observed in social life: a conservative attitude and a progressive attitude. The former seeks to hold onto subjective and faith-based beliefs while maintaining the status quo as much as possible, while the latter is characterized by an objective and critical approach that adapts to evolving social circumstances and reforms established practices accordingly. These two attitudes are inherently complementary and interdependent, as reflected in the old saying, “Review the old in order to understand the new.” In Buddhism, it is said that “faith without understanding increases ignorance, while understanding without faith fosters wrong views. Understanding and faith, harmoniously united, become the foundation for practice.” Wise understanding and unwavering conviction mutually complement each other, giving rise to a power- ful, practical life. Just as the left foot cannot move forward without the firm support of the right foot on solid ground, both attitudes are essential for societal progress. However, when it comes to the essential attitude for social life, it must be progressive. This is because, just as the right foot must follow suit and take a step forward, society itself inherently progresses and develops continuously. Therefore, it is imperative that our approach align with this progress and be oriented toward advancement.

For example, regarding Hegel’s philosophy that “everything that exists is rational, and everything that is rational exists,” Wilhelm II attempted to rationalize his own position as kaiser through the first clause [of that sentence]. On the contrary, Marx emphasized the second clause to assert the rationality of his revolutionary social movement. While the former statement may seem correct at first glance, it merely reflects a conservative attitude that disregards the inherent developmental nature of society. In a developing society, even previously rational entities eventually encompass growing contradictions and inevitably progress toward a more rational existence. Those who recognize this understand that the latter statement is more accurate. Transitions and transformations involve both subjective and objective conditions, and there may be instances where the timing is premature. In any case, the undeniable fact is that society is constantly evolving and changing. Therefore, an essential attitude for social life is a progressive stance that embraces and dialectically resolves all aspects of development. A conservative attitude, which fears or curses change, is either a result of ignorance or a self-serving attitude to defend one’s own interests, and it is not something young and idealistic members of society should embrace. An often-cited example is that the clothing of a growing child must gradually change in style and size; otherwise, it becomes useless and even harmful. Similarly, when we look at a chicken egg, the shell is an absolute necessity until a certain point. However, once the chick is nurtured and ready to emerge, the shell becomes an unnecessary obstruction and a potentially fatal barrier to new life.

Looking at our [Japanese] history, it is clearly one of constant change. The despotic rule of clans such as the Soga 蘇我 gave way—via the Taika reforms—to aristocratic governance, which was then replaced by warrior rule and eventually developed into bourgeois politics through the great revolution of the Meiji Restoration [1868]. We are now witnessing vigorous movements toward the emergence of a new society. When we observe world history, we see a similar process of transformation from autocratic rule to constitutional monarchy, republics, democracies, communism, and so on. While there may be some variations and peculiarities, just as there are differences in sensitivity and intelligence between children, every nation-state, without exception, follows the general trend of human history. It undergoes a gradual or rapid process of change, much like the transition from youth to adulthood and old age. Thus, there is no form of existence on earth that remains unchanging.

2. The Possibility of Buddhist Reform

Buddhism is no different; it is nothing but the principle of development and change. Indeed, the Buddhist teachings expounded by Śākyamuni Buddha have undergone a two-thousand-five-hundred-year history of division into thirteen schools and fifty-six sects. This history is a result of the objective conditions and circumstances of a changing society and not necessarily a product of subjective beliefs held by each of the sect founders. For example, Shinran’s acceptance of married priests and consumption of meat might have been considered a heretical reform within the Buddhist community at the time. However, today, there are no objections raised by [Japanese] Buddhist practitioners as it is ultimately seen to be a response to objective requirements and the recognition that “what is rational exists.” In the Sutra of Infinite Meanings, it is stated, “Infinite meaning arises from one dharma.” The “one dharma” refers to the true nature of reality, the very essence of the constantly evolving world. The fact that Buddhism has produced a vast array of teachings and scriptures, comprising eighty-four thousand doctrines and seven thousand volumes, is a testament to its nature as a product of changing social contexts. Therefore, as long as society continues to develop in the present and future, Buddhism can undergo limitless development and change without hindrance. It is through such adaptability that Buddhism can continue to maintain its social significance and value.

Currently, there is a widespread emergence of “new” voices in various sectors of society and culture, such as new sciences, new arts, new educational practices, and so on. What exactly do these “new” voices imply? It goes without saying that they signify the demand for the evaluation and transformation of the old cultural forms of the Meiji and Taishō [1912–1926] eras. Under such emerging social conditions, if Buddhism sticks to the old forms as they are, its fate will surely be nothing other than decay. The indifference of the masses toward established temple Buddhism already speaks volumes. If we are to have Buddhism for society, rather than society for Buddhism, then it is quite clear that the temple Buddhism of the Kamakura period of six or seven hundred years ago cannot simply be adapted to the present day. The old Buddhism must be thoroughly reevaluated and reformed both in terms of its teachings and its ritual forms. This is precisely why we are advocating a modern, revitalized Buddhism. If Buddhism is completely irrelevant to contemporary society, it should be unequivocally discarded. However, if it still possesses elements that can be useful when reexamined, then its teachings should be clarified in and for a modern context. The question of whether Buddhism has the potential to meet the essential demands of modern society requires careful consideration. But what exactly are the demands of contemporary society? This is a problem that needs to be scrutinized.

3. The Demands of Modern Society

1. Modern science denies the existence of supernatural gods and buddhas and advocates atheism.

2. Modern science rejects the belief in an afterlife and advocates materialism by denying the existence of spirits or souls.

3. Modern people are not satisfied with illusory happiness; they want to fully enjoy real happiness in their everyday lives.

4. The masses in modern society desire economic stability and thus demand the transformation of capitalism.

5. Awakened humanity transcends nationalism and promotes internationalism.

6. Progressive Buddhists aim to reconcile sectarian Buddhism and ardently desire its unification.

Let us briefly examine the validity of each of these six items, critically evaluate established Buddhism, and in line with the Buddhist truth, outline the possibilities for a revitalized Buddhism.

Chapter 2: Modern Science Denies the Existence of Supernatural Gods and Buddhas and Advocates Atheism

4. Characteristics of Religion as Explained by Social Science

Traditionally, the distinctive feature of religious forms can be summarized by the phrase Engels employs in his Essay on Feuerbach: “If religion can exist without its God, then alchemy can exist without its philosopher’s stone.” Religion referred to the belief in a transcendent, absolute deity whom people worshiped and prayed to in order to seek grace and salvation. While the Christian God serves as a typical example, even the diverse Buddhist traditions, although they do not emphasize the creation of the world, still possess a similar concept of a transcendent, superhuman absolute. Amida Buddha in Shin Buddhism, the Eternal Buddha in Nichiren Buddhism, and Dainichi Nyorai in Shingon Buddhism, among others, all fall into this category. In Zen Buddhism, the original teachings do not inherently involve such an absolute being, but in practice, various deities like Yakushi Nyorai 薬師如来 and Kannon 観音 Bodhisattva are worshiped indiscriminately. However, one may question whether these transcendent deities truly exist, and furthermore, whether Buddhism originally took such form? The answer [to both of these questions] is, of course, “No”!

Marxism is an ideology that vividly denies the existence of such [transcendent] beings. According to Marxism, all religions are nothing more than “fantastic reflections in the minds of humans of external forces dominating their daily lives” (Engels). In other words, as Marx put it, “Man created religion, religion did not create man.”

[Marxism] thus takes as its object the modes of early human existence that gave rise to religion and explains these from two perspectives.

5. Ignorance Gives Birth to the Gods

The first point is this: Lenin said, “Fear created the gods,” while according to [Johannes de] Gorter, inexplicable forces gave birth to them. In either case, the fear that ignorant and superstitious ancient humans felt toward “inexplicable” natural phenomena led them to believe that these phenomena were the work of “gods.” From the desire to somehow escape from unavoidable disasters, they would prostrate themselves, pray, or even offer sacrifices. Take lightning, for example. It was an incomprehensible phenomenon involving flashes and booms, and if it struck, humans and livestock would be instantly killed, and houses and buildings would be torn apart and burned. For primitive people who did not know how to avoid it, they considered this to be evidence of the absolute power of “gods.” This is similar to the way an infant perceives everything anthropomorphically. In the past, people used to perceive various mysterious natural phenomena in their daily lives, such as raging waves, and would worship the dragon god for safe navigation. [Likewise, they would] pray to the wind god for protection from wind disasters and perform rain rituals for droughts. They would view these phenomena as supernatural acts of gods and be filled with fear, earnestly seeking the appeasement of these “gods.” However, with today’s advanced human intellect, phenomena like lightning can be understood as the electrical interaction of opposing currents, and they are no longer seen as inexplicable. The fear associated with such phenomena has been completely resolved with just one or two lightning rods. Modern science has provided clear explanations for marine navigation and earthquakes whereas [in the past these phenomena] led to humans attempting to utilize various gods [to accomplish this aim].

6. Economic Life Also Produces Gods

The second explanation is that gods are products of economic life. For example, let us examine the emergence of ujigami 氏神 (clan deities).Ujigamirefer to the highest authority figures within a clan or lineage. In the past, members of a community relied on these authority figures for guidance in hunting, farming, and other livelihood activities. Moreover, in the face of external threats, such as attacks from other clans, they would unite around these leaders for defense and security. Naturally, these authority figures came to be revered as the heads of the clans. In the case of the Japanese emperor, for instance, it is argued that the emperor, by consolidating various clans and becoming the ultimate authority figure, embodies the concept of the highestujigami. As a result, the emperor is viewed as a sacred being, symbolizing the well-being of all clans. This theory offers a plausible explanation for the reverence bestowed upon the emperor.

The origin of such ujigami can also be understood by considering Engels’s statement when discussing the origins of ethnic religions that “God assumed a form of earthly power over celestial power.” It reads as follows: “The elders of the tribe organize, manage, command, and plan labor as guardians of accumulated experience in production, representing the principle of active creativity. On the other hand, the rest of the members listen obediently, accept commands, conform to the plans set from above, and act according to the will of others. These relations of production, especially when applied to the whole universe, become a model for examining human beings themselves.”

When we look at this in comparison with Japanese mythology, it becomes an intriguing topic. Here it is suggested that the essence of the “gods” who dominate humans essentially lies in their economic control over the earthly realm, as human beings created the illusion of gods due to their constrained economic lives. A prime example of this is the main deity of Izumo Taisha 出雲大社 (Izumo Grand Shrine), Ōkuninushi no Ōkami 大国主大神, who is considered the god of economic matters. The concept of kannazuki 神無月 (the month without gods) in the lunar calendar, which refers to the absence of gods in various provinces because they gather at Izumo Grand Shrine, is another illustrative example. It signifies a time when the autumn harvest has been mostly completed, and the chiefs of each community, representing the highest authority, gather in Izumo, which was the central administrative region at that time, to hold regional conferences. During these conferences, they discuss progress reports, taxation, and plans for the following year. Therefore, it signifies a period when local leaders, representing the uji (clans), convene in Izumo to engage in discussions regarding governance and economic matters. Consequently, as society develops democratically, production systems become fully democratized and economic domination diminishes, leading to a society where individuals coexist and prosper equally; the need for such prayers to the “gods” thus naturally diminishes, and the tangible belief in them gradually disappears. In short, it is reasonable to understand that once a society reaches a stage where social life is based on equal coexistence and mutual prosperity, and production is democratically organized, the reliance on such “gods” for prayers becomes unnecessary. This is analogous to the fact that healthy individuals have no need to pray to gods or buddhas for healing, whereas sick people do.

In essence, whether it be the initial natural phenomena or the subsequent economic relationships, the true nature of the gods that were traditionally believed to exist has been fully dissected, and their illusionary nature has been thoroughly examined and accounted for through the advancement of science and the increase of productive forces. Upon full consideration, this perspective seems to be correct.

7. The Salvific Power of Dubious Gods

Furthermore, as a method to deny the existence of omnipotent gods or buddhas from another perspective, a passage from Archbishop Brown’s book Communism and Christianism can be cited as a brilliant and insightful critique. It reads as follows:

If God desires something and cannot do it, then He is impotent, and this contradicts the nature of God. If He can do it but chooses not to, then He is evil. Both cases contradict the nature of God. If He neither desires it nor can do it, then He is both evil and impotent. If He both wishes to get rid of evil and can do so, which is the only conceivable way to imagine God, then how is it possible that there is evil on earth?

This objection is valid. Indeed, if there were an omnipotent God or compassionate saviors like Amida Buddha, the Eternal Buddha, or Dainichi Nyorai, then why does society continue to suffer in such a hellish state? Even parents in ordinary households, without waiting for their children’s pleas, provide bread and clothing according to the seasons. Yet, when it comes to seeking salvation, one must plead and even then receive only a meager offering of rice and salt. If we observe the pastors and priests themselves who preach such teachings, we see how many of them expose their disgraceful behavior and hypocrisy regarding economic issues. In human life, while bread alone may not be sufficient, the resolution of the foundational issue of bread becomes even more crucial. This should be understood. However, despite this, those who forcefully propagate illusory happiness and deliberately disregard economic problems not only further prove the impotence and nonexistence of God but also commit a despicable crime by deceiving and robbing the people of true happiness. In this regard, Lenin’s criticism is appropriate.

Religion teaches submission and endurance on earth to those who toil and suffer throughout their lives, comforting them with the hope of heavenly rewards. However, for those who live off the labor of others, religion teaches them to practice charity on earth, thus offering a cheap way to justify their exploitative practices while selling them tickets to heavenly happiness at a considerable price. Religion is the opium of the people.

In response to this famous charge, leading temples and religious institutions such as Higashi 東 [East] and Nishi 西 [West] Honganji 本願寺, Mount Minobu 身延, and Mount Kōya 高野 have no choice but to solemnly submit without room for rebuttal. Opium is a narcotic, and those who sell such a deceptive narcotic while disguising themselves as wise and virtuous must be considered enemies of the people. Furthermore, if we consider the prevalence [within these sects] of superstitious practices such as fortunetelling and the interpretation of good and bad luck, they reflect a complacent attitude that seeks happiness by relying on external controlling powers, disregarding social transformation and personal effort. Such superstitions may generate social sins that distort the normal evolution of culture, including the development of fields like medicine. The aversion to certain marital unions expressed in the Chinese astrological sign hinoe-uma 丙午 and the reliance on the “twenty-eight mansions” to determine auspicious and inauspicious dates are representative examples of foolish superstitions. The emergence of these superstitions is also related to the delusion associated with the belief in supernatural gods and buddhas. Therefore, the clarification and promotion of atheism must be an important foundational move to sweep away these superstitions wholesale.

8. Buddhism Is Atheistic

Indeed, the belief in the existence of supernatural gods and buddhas is not inherent to Buddhism. In fact, Buddhism originally emphasized the teaching that “the supreme reality for man is man.”

In the religious context prior to Buddhism in India, the predominant belief system was Brahmanism, according to which the creator of the universe was the supreme god known as “Brahman” and humanity was considered his creation. It was believed that the Brahmin caste, who were born from the head of Brahman, held the highest social status and were responsible for conducting rituals and worshiping Brahman. The kṣatriyas, born from the chest, belonged to the second caste associated with military and political functions. Thevaiśyas, born from the abdomen, belonged to the third caste engaged in economic activities, and theśūdras, born from the feet, belonged to the fourth caste and were considered slaves. It was believed that all aspects of their lives, including their fortunes and misfortunes, were governed by Brahman.

However, it was the Buddha himself who, after attaining enlightenment, went into the streets and decisively rejected Brahmanism and its hierarchical social structure. He introduced the teachings of the “four ennobling truths” and the “twelve links of interdependent co-arising,” paving the way for a new path to liberation. Therefore, thehistorical figure who courageously challenged the dominance of Brahmanism and propagated the teachings of liberation was none other than the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama.

A specialized interpretation of the “four ennobling truths” and the “twelve links of interdependent co-arising” will be omitted here. In essence, they represent the teachings of causality and the practice of selflessness, which aim at the liberation of humanity. According to the Buddha’s understanding, all phenomena in the universe, referred to as “the world,” are not created by a “god” but exist as interdependent and constantly changing manifestations of reality. Therefore, there is no eternal and unchanging social order, nor does an absolute being called “god” exist. If one seeks something permanent, it is simply the fact of interdependence—the law of interdependent co-arising. Based on this fact, the fundamental attitude toward human liberation in daily life should naturally involve the negation of individual egos and private ownership, and instead foster a communal and cooperative social existence.

The teachings of the “three marks of existence” in Buddhism—the impermanence of all phenomena, the selflessness of all things, and the tranquility of nirvana—also serve to illustrate these principles. In essence, they convey the understanding of the above principles.

If we examine the matter further, we can find evidence in the cases of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana, two prominent Brahmin teachers with hundreds of disciples who chose to abandon Brahmanism and become disciples of the Buddha. The reason behind their decision was that one day, they heard from a fellow Buddhist disciple named Assaji that the Buddha taught, “All things arise due to causes and conditions, and they cease to exist when those causes and conditions cease.” Upon hearing this, Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana immediately understood the principle of the impermanence of all things, which states that anything born is subject to decay and cessation. This understanding led them to renounce their previous beliefs and embrace the teachings of the Buddha.

Truly, to attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death, one must embark upon a path of discerning understanding regarding the ironclad law of causality, which states that all living beings are subject to impermanence and will inevitably perish. Furthermore, it is said that during the Buddha’s final moments before his passing, his dear disciple Ānanda expressed sorrow over the thought of being left without the Buddha’s guidance in the future. In response to this, the Buddha provided teachings and guidance, comforting Ānanda in his grief.

I have already established the sutras and precepts. You, my disciples, should simply study these sutras and precepts and diligently practice them. I too am among the (monastic) sangha.

In essence, this means, “Even if I pass away, the truth I have taught will not perish. If you sincerely practice this truth and do not lose it, I will always exist among the community of bhikkus, just as before.” Similarly, the passage “O bhikkus, rely on yourselves as the lamp and rely on the Dharma as the refuge, and do not rely on anything else as the lamp or as the refuge” from the Nirvana Sutra clearly denies the existence of an absolute god. In this way, fundamental Buddhism negates the existence of a transcendent absolute god. Why, then, has it transformed into the present-day form of a theistic religion? I will explain this issue in the subsequent chapters on the question of the soul.

In short, the period following the Buddha’s death was a transitional one involving various transformations due to the prevailing social circumstances. As such, correcting the distorted teachings of Buddhism today is not a blasphemy but rather a revival of true Buddhism. Dr. Takakusu 高楠 also rightly states, “Both Amida Buddha and Dainichi Nyorai are manifestations of the Buddha’s ideals, and they are the perfected forms of human beings. Therefore, they have no meaning whatsoever as creator gods, ruling gods, or gods of judgment.” If we express this in the words of Marx, as I previously quoted, “The critique of religion ends with the doctrine that the supreme reality for man is man.” Therefore, true Buddhists should praise and revere the personality of the historical Śākyamuni Buddha, who embodied the ideals of Buddhism. Worshiping abstract Buddhas like Amida as existing, absolute beings is now one hundred percent nonsensical. We must completely resolve these matters without anxieties or attachments. Faith in the Buddha is akin to Confucians revering Confucius and communists admiring Lenin; it does not carry any theistic or external authoritarian meaning. The crux of the issue always lies in reverence for the Buddha and the contemporary practice of his teachings.

O bhikkus! Even if someone is my disciple who follows behind me, holding the hem of my robe and treading in my footsteps, if that person is consumed by greed and their mind is disturbed, they are far from me, and I am also far from them. This is because they do not see the Dharma, and one who does not see the Dharma does not see me. However, even if they are a hundred miles away from me, if they have abandoned desires and possess a pure heart, they are by my side. This is because they see the Dharma, and by seeing the Dharma, they see me. (A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, p. 36)

As is clear from this passage, since Buddha is a personified truth, there is plenty of possibility for Buddhism even in the scientific modern age. When we teach the Buddhadharma to practitioners, they naturally come to value the Buddha’s character, which leads in turn to a deeper and renewed practice. There is not a hint of irrationality here. Fundamental Buddhism was not originally opium. After all, Buddhism is atheism. “Revitalized Buddhism” must first extol this aspect and then liquidate the delusional nature of established, institutional Buddhism at the same time as we liquidate the opium-like role that established Buddhism plays in society.

CHAPTER 3: MODERN SCIENCE DENIES THE AFTERLIFE AND ADVOCATES MATERIALISM

9. The Meaning of the Afterlife and the Immortal Soul

Our second analysis concerns the issue of the afterlife, which refers to the immortality of the soul as taught in traditional Buddhism. However, before delving into this issue, it is essential to clearly define and understand the meaning of otherworldliness and immortality of the soul, as the interpretation of these terms can vary and lead to confusion.

Higan 彼岸 refers to the boundary, or crossing point, between life and death symbolizing the realm of delusion and suffering (i.e., this shore), while implying the attainment of awakening (nirvana) as the other shore. It can also metaphorically represent an ideal world on earth. Therefore, the term higanshugi 彼岸主義 can be used to describe various concepts—including that of a communist society—that might be considered forms of an afterlife based on [the] scientific inevitability [of their coming to pass]. However, in the context of the discussion here, higanshugi specifically refers to beliefs about the immortality of the soul after death, such as the Christian concept of heaven, paradise in Pure Land Buddhism, or the Pure Land of Vulture Peak in Nichiren Buddhism.

When it comes to the content of “immortality of the soul,” there has been a tendency in recent times to substitute phrases like “immortality of the self” in an attempt to support this belief. Various explanations are offered from philosophical, scientific, biological, social, and inspirational perspectives. I will explain these in relation to (1) philosophy, (2) science, (3) biology, (4) social achievements, and (5) lasting influence. Philosophically, it is argued that while phenomena may perish, the essence of the self is immortal, much like water remains even when bubbles disappear. This is similar to some of the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism, such as the doctrine of interdependent co-arising and the gate of “thusness” (such as one finds, for example, in the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana). Scientifically, proponents cite theories of the indestructibility of matter and energy to assert the substantial immortality of the self. This may be akin to Dr. Satō 佐藤 defending the rationality of Christianity by asserting that electrons are divine. Biologically, it is argued that the life of one’s descendants are an extension of the self, while in terms of social achievements, for example, Thomas Edison’s self exists in the shining light of an electric bulb. A further explanation relates that the spirit of Śākyamuni Buddha in Buddhism is immortal due to its lasting influence. However, all these explanations have strayed far from the true meaning of the immortality of the soul. In the traditional understanding, the immortality of the soul implies that after the death of a specific individual, their soul—with its unique, conscious identity—continues to exist, possibly experiencing punishment in hell or finding fulfillment in paradise.

10. The End of the Illusion of “Another World”

Now, regarding the concept of “another world,” is it truly an existing realm where spirits live after death, as generally believed? In response to this question, it is evident that modern science dismisses the existence of another world. Even from a geographical standpoint, once Copernican heliocentrism is accepted, the directions designated by terms such as “heaven,” “the Western Pure Land,” or “the realm of the dead” become utterly nonsensical. Even if the whole [human] world were to be destroyed, the earth would continue its rotation, rendering the notion of “another world” directionally meaningless. Ultimately, there is no scientific evidence to prove its existence.

How, then, should we consider the existence of realms like the “Pure Land,” “heaven,” or “Pure Land of Vulture Peak” in the afterlife? We should understand that they hold no meaning other than as the subjective belief of individuals. For example, Master Nichiren states, “Śākyamuni Buddha remains present even after entering nirvana; even after his extinction he remains alive in this sutra” (On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land).

And according to Master Shinran:

It is only through believing and relying on the words of good people that we come to trust [in the teachings of the nenbutsu]. Truly, the practice of nenbutsu is the seed for being born in the Pure Land; it may lead to that, or it may lead to falling into hell due to one’s karmic fruits. We cannot know for certain. Even if one is deceived by Master Hōnen and recites the nenbutsu and falls into hell, there should be no regrets.

According to this perspective, the Pure Land is established through belief. Its significance lies in the act of believing, and without belief, it becomes a meaningless concept. Therefore, the Pure Land, the Pure Land of Vulture Peak, and heaven should be regarded as symbolic representations of an ideal world, devoid of any inherent meaning. They should be regarded as concepts that must be obliterated.

11. The Immortality of the Soul Is Based on a Dualistic Concept of Spirit and Flesh

Next is the issue of the immortality of the soul. The belief that a soul with an individual consciousness exists even after death is no longer a problem for those who deny the afterlife. And yet some believers accept the idea that Christ was born from the Virgin Mary, was killed, and ascended to heaven in bodily form on the third day. Is it not a problem to believe that when a person dies their soul takes on some other form—like a balloon, perhaps—and escapes?

Upon consideration, the philosophical basis of the belief in the immortality of the soul originates from ancient people perceiving the body and soul as dualistic entities where the body is mortal and the soul is immortal. As long as belief in God remains, this is not an implausible concept. Faith in the actual existence of God has become a foundation for traditional religions. Feuerbach stated, “Faith in God is nothing other than faith in immortality, and conversely, faith in immortality is faith in God.” This statement holds true. Believing in the existence of a divine being, such as an imperceptible personal God or Buddha, inevitably affirms the continuation of the soul after bodily death. Additionally, the belief in the immortality of the soul should eventually eliminate any doubts regarding the existence of spiritual deities such as God or Buddha. Therefore, these two concepts are interdependent and have established what might be called heavenly transcendentalism, giving rise to the idea of the immortality of the soul. However, as discussed in the previous chapter, if Buddhism is fundamentally atheistic, these concepts are clearly negated. Therefore, the question arises: How did the concept of the immortality of the soul, which is based on the dualism of spirit and flesh, originate? It is necessary to first examine this question.

12. Spirit-Flesh Dualism in Primitive Societies

In this regard, scholars who have studied the notion that “the primitive people of Australia are the remnants of our distant ancestors” provide the following explanation:

Primitive people, due to their limited knowledge, cannot fully comprehend the concept of natural death. They do not believe that they must die sooner or later. (This is still true for infants [note by Seno’o].) However, when an unnatural death occurs, their behavior changes. Primitive people witness such unnatural deaths almost daily during hunting. In these cases, they consistently observe a similar scene. The wounded animal, struck by a spear or an axe, falls down; blood flows from the wound, and as the blood flows, the animal becomes motionless and stops breathing. In other words, it dies. From this, the following theory is derived: when blood flows out of the body, the life force that had previously animated the body, or in other words, the spirit, leaves the body.

According to the beliefs of primitive people, the soul that has departed from the body continues to exist independently as the deceased’s twin. Through this process, it becomes a spirit. This notion is confirmed through the act of dreaming. From a psychological standpoint, primitive people can be considered “naive realists.” Everything they see or inquire about is considered a tangible reality for them. (The same applies to children [note by Seno’o].) For example, when an aboriginal person in Australia sees themselves hunting or participating in a feast in their dream, they genuinely believe that their soul has engaged in those activities. They cannot explain dreaming in any other way. Primitive people perceive spirits as the twins of humans. Therefore, it is only natural that they have established customs and habits concerning spirits. In times of need, primitive people consistently seek assistance from the spirits of those kin in their community who have died. This is not at all surprising to them. They believe it is their responsibility to take care of the spirits of their deceased relatives. In certain aboriginal communities in Australia, it is a widespread custom to offer various delicacies on the graves of the deceased for several days after death. Failure to do so, according to their beliefs, may result in the spirits of the deceased causing harm or seeking revenge upon their fellow community members.

Just as in the case of the belief that mummies have souls that depart and return to their vessel—the physical body—such notions are said to originate from superstitions. This belief can be considered a simplistic interpretation by ignorant and uncivilized people, who naturally began to think of spirits and bodies in a dualistic manner. However, such a dualistic concept of spirit and body has become increasingly untenable in learned discourse. At the very least, the mind and the body are two aspects of a living organism, where subjectively the mind is considered to be mental activity, but objectively, there is no other way than to view it as a function of the body. In other words, if there were a complete duality and continued freedom after death, it would be difficult to explain why physical malfunctions hold sway over mental activity. Clearly, mental activity is an inseparable phenomenon dependent on the body. When the body dies, the mind also ceases to exist, just like a flame extinguishing when the firewood burns out. It is therefore reasonable to believe that no individual spirits or personal souls continue to exist after death.

13. Immortality of the Soul and Psychic Science

In recent times, there are people who advocate for “psychic science” and attempt to scientifically prove that spirits continue to exist and live after the death of the physical body. As long as the dualistic concept of spirit and body, as mentioned above, remains, this cannot be considered impossible. Even from a common-sense perspective, if one’s personality continues to exist after death, why is it impossible to communicate with grieving family members and friends who are dearly missed? There have been experiments conducted by mediums to establish communication with spirits, but even these experiments—which involve communication via a medium conducted when the medium is in an altered state of consciousness or a kind of hypnotic state—cannot be considered sufficiently common or scientific. Ultimately, at present, the belief in the immortality of the soul, like beliefs in the afterlife, can only be affirmed through subjective faith rather than objective evidence.

However, even if belief in the immortality of the soul is a natural inclination of human beings, it has become intertwined with various aspects of life, such as the need for reassurance and ethical considerations. While Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason denied the existence of God, in his Critique of Practical Reason he acknowledged God again as a requirement for humanity. Therefore, it is necessary to critically examine the correlated issues and questions related to these beliefs and demands of humanity.

14. It Is Unnecessary to Insist on the Immortality of the Soul

Life is filled with contradictions. The more we awaken and strive to use our reason, the more contradictions with reality we feel. The issue of life and death is a representative example, as death is generally considered to be absolute and fearsome. If the fear of death and the desire for immortality is universal, then even if the belief in the immortality of the soul is denied by logic it may persist as an element of faith based on our desires. However, death can be both a subject of fear and a path to salvation. For instance, we hear that some people in their old age long for death. We also sometimes witness elderly individuals desiring death, and there are cases where lovers, saddened by unfulfilled hopes, choose the path of death. People may willingly sacrifice themselves for the sake of family, social class, or even their nation. In such cases, they do not necessarily desire an afterlife. Considering these facts, the longing for eternal life is not absolute. Moreover, death is not always a source of fear. Even in Buddhism, there are stories about this. In the ancient country of Bhīmā, a fox once proclaimed, “Some humans enjoy life and detest death, while others enjoy death and detest life,” and this declaration earned the fox recognition as a teacher by the god Indra. Reflecting on a life without “death” in a tranquil manner, one can understand why “death” itself may be seen as the ultimate salvation in Buddhism, where nirvana is interpreted as synonymous with death.

In what situations can death be considered relatively calmly, and in what situations is it mourned most deeply? And why does the desire for eternal life arise so strongly? This issue can be observed in the fact that the death of an elderly person, seen as a natural end to a full life, is accompanied by fewer tears compared to the death of a young person. Even among young individuals, a peaceful death that follows medical treatment is more readily accepted, while a sudden and tragic death continues to be mourned. This suggests that the question revolves around whether the death is natural or unnatural. Attaining a natural death has a significant impact on alleviating the fear and grief associated with death. With the spread of correct concepts of hygiene and an improvement in basic living conditions such as clothing, food, and housing, we will see fewer unnatural deaths and a greater societal experience of natural old age, which would in turn increase awareness and understanding of the inevitability of the cycle of life and death. As ripe fruit naturally falls to the ground, death will be seen as a natural part of life, and the veil of fear and sorrow surrounding it will gradually be lifted. According to Dr. Futaki 二木, the agony of an unnatural death caused by illness results from the sacrifice of healthy organs to compensate for the dysfunction of a single organ. On the other hand, a natural death is likened to the collapse of an old tree, where there is no pain for the individual. However, if one continues to live a life of unnatural hardship day and night, without experiencing the true pleasures of a human existence and ultimately perishes without enjoying a fulfilling life, it is only natural that dissatisfaction and regrets about life intensify, thereby heightening the fear of death and giving rise to a strong desire for eternal life.

Indeed, “freedom is the conscious recognition of necessity.” True peace of mind should be established upon such necessary truths. It is good for traditional religious leaders to point to death and prompt reflection on the impermanence of life, as well as preach a sense of comfort to be found in accepting death. However, for people in modern society, it is no longer necessary to insist on the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. The better path of guidance and salvation for modern people may lie in a clear recognition of the inevitability of death, while simultaneously making efforts to improve living conditions and working toward the transformation of the capitalist economic system. This would be to ensure greater life satisfaction for the masses and their attainment of natural death. Should we not also recognize that it is in such efforts that human self-awareness truly exists? In doing so, could we not replace “the paradise of heaven beyond our graves with the paradise of the earthly realm beyond our graves—namely the historical future and the future of humanity?”

15. Belief in the Soul’s Immortality Does Not Promote Effort

Then there are those who insist on the immortality of the soul from an ethical point of view. They accept present misfortunes and blessings as the karmic consequences of past lives, and they seek to encourage effort in this life by anticipating the rewards and punishments of future lives through the belief in the immortality of the soul and the law of cause and effect across three existences [i.e., past, present, and future]. However, while such views may have been accepted during the uncritical feudal and individualistic capitalist societies of the past, in today’s world where it is evident that numerous problems are influenced by social relations and where modern individuals have lost interest and faith in the immortality of the soul due to scientific advancements, such demands have become irrelevant. In other words, modern individuals consider life in terms of shared responsibility and seek practical solutions through societal means. They no longer find satisfaction in the concept of rewards and punishments based on the law of cause and effect across three existences. Established religious leaders worry that if they stop preaching about future rewards, people will become selfish. But look at how many skilled orators and egotists exist among those religious leaders and their followers. On the other hand, it is ironic to see how many devoted and loving activists exist in socialist movements, which these activists consider to be godless and materialistic. What a paradoxical contrast it is! Modern self-centeredness does not stem from a lack of consideration for the immortality of the soul, but is primarily a mass product of the capitalist economic system itself.

Thus, even the doctrines of the afterlife and materialism, when thoroughly reexamined, not only present no obstacles but can contribute significantly to the movement for the realization of a new society that liberates the masses.

16. Original Buddhism Accepted Neither the Afterlife Nor an Immortal Soul

So, what kind of view did our Buddhism originally offer on this issue? Did established Buddhist organizations originally preach concepts such as an afterlife or the immortality of the soul? Once again, the answer is “No.”

Śākyamuni Buddha’s teachings often addressed the specific circumstances of the individuals he was speaking to. There were occasions when he discussed the issue of the afterlife to provide comfort in the face of present suffering. However, the fundamental purpose of his teachings was liberation from suffering in actual life, and he did not specifically advocate belief in an afterlife or in the immortality of the soul. This can be seen in his response to the questioning of his disciple Mālukyaputta regarding the existence of the afterlife and the destruction or nondestruction of the “soul.”

The world is finite, and yet it is infinite. Whether one believes in existence after death or denies it, neither view enables a purer practice. Birth, aging, sickness, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress equally confront us. Therefore, I preach the Dharma to eliminate them in the present moment. (A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, p. 403)

Thus, liberation is attained by viewing life in a certain way. The Buddha explained this to a Brahmin called Seniya as follows:

O Seniya! There are three types of teachers in the world. First, there are those who recognize the self in the present life but deny it in the afterlife. These people negate the afterlife, and their view is called annihilationism. Second, there are those who recognize the self both in the present life and in the afterlife. They preach the eternal existence of both the present and future lives, and their view is called eternalism. Last, there are those who neither recognize the self in the present life nor in the afterlife. This middle way is the teaching of the Tathāgata (Buddha). The Tathāgata teaches the concept of no-self and diligently seeks to extinguish the delusions of the present life, aiming for nirvana. (Saṃyukta Āgama)

According to the early Buddhist scriptures, Buddhism does not recognize the existence of a self even in this present life. Therefore, clearly the Buddha did not consider the postmortem survival of a personal individual soul, and consequently, the concept of an afterlife, or higan, is also absent. This is commonly known as “selflessness” or “emptiness”—and it refers to the concept that all existence is a process formed by various conditions coming together in harmony. It is further reflected in the teaching of impermanence and the no-self nature of all phenomena, as expressed in the famous phrase “all conditioned things are impermanent; all phenomena are without self.”

This can be considered a dialectical perspective. Although Buddhism later developed various teachings related to the afterlife and the immortality of the soul as peripheral doctrines, the fundamental understanding of Buddhism remained rooted in the concepts of no-self and interdependent co-arising.

For example, in the Sutra of Complete Enlightenment we find the following explanation:

This body, ultimately, has no essence; it is like a transformation arising from the coming together of elements, similar to an illusion. The four elements temporarily combine, leading to the delusion of the six senses. The six senses, in conjunction with the four elements, create the illusion of interdependent co-arising. Within this [process], there appears an accumulation of relational aspects. If we were to name it, we might call it “self.” Good men, if this deluded mind were without the six dusts [sense objects], it could not exist at all. When the four elements disintegrate, there is nothing to which the dust can adhere. If within this, the conditioned dusts return to their dispersion, ultimately, there would be nothing for the dependent mind to perceive.

In summary, according to this passage, the human body does not have a fixed essence or a concept of a separate entity like a soul. It is the aggregation of various conditions(four aggregates) that allows for the functioning of sensations, and from there, the arising of what can be called the mind. However, the mind is meaningless without stimulation from the external world (six sense objects), and if the physical body (four elements) were to disperse, there would be nothing remaining, and the mind would cease to exist. This perspective contradicts idealistic views and leans more toward materialistic interpretations. Buddhism, in its original teachings, does not preach the continuation of a soul after the death and physical dissolution of the body.

Why then did the notions of no-self and no-soul, as taught by fundamental Buddhism, transform into beliefs like the immortality of the soul and the concept of the afterlife as seen today? This can be attributed to several factors:

1. The tolerant and adaptable approach to preaching taken by Śākyamuni Buddha in his efforts to educate the masses.
2. The method of consolidating the teachings after the passing of Śākyamuni Buddha.
3. Influences from the general social context.

Śākyamuni Buddha’s primary goal was to teach about liberation in actual life and the practices to achieve this, as seen in his response to the disciple Mālukyaputta. Therefore, he approached metaphysical questions quite flexibly and freely. For example, when dealing with seekers who couldn’t completely abandon the Brahmanical concept of the existence of Brahma, Śākyamuni Buddha didn’t outright deny it but rather used it as a skillful means to encourage ethical living. He taught that Brahma is a god without greed or hatred, whose followers should also strive to live without greed or hatred. Similarly, when encountering individuals who advocated for the transmigration of the soul, he taught the law of karmic cause and effect, admonishing them to engage in virtuous conduct and avoid harmful actions.

After the passing of Śākyamuni Buddha, these skillful and tolerant teachings were recorded by the conservative disciples known as the Theravāda school, who were steadfast in preserving the original teachings. Initially, these teachings were likely recognized as skillful means rather than absolute truths. However, as time passed and successive generations of disciples emerged, the historical context of the teachings was gradually forgotten, and they became fixed in their recorded form. Furthermore, after Śākyamuni Buddha’s passing, there was a growing reactionary movement among the Brahmins who sought to reestablish the belief in divine beings. In response to this movement and the need for mass education that desired eternal life based on unscientific notions, the fundamental teachings of Buddhism were gradually interpreted in a socially dialectical manner. This led to the development of a concept that transformed Śākyamuni Buddha into a deity and the emergence of the notion of “nirvana” as a postmortem pure land, or what is commonly referred to as the afterlife.

The emancipation of thought is not necessarily achieved through the liberation of everyday life through social change. The fundamental truth of Buddhism, which emphasizes the absence of gods and souls, has been distorted in various ways. Such distortions were inevitable within the given social circumstances. In a society without freedom, ideas are always manipulated to serve the interests of the ruling class. In Japan, for example, the concepts of the afterlife and the law of karma were embraced as convenient ideologies by the ruling class, deviating significantly from the original teachings of Buddhism. The idea of the immortality of the soul has developed in a way that is entirely unlike the original teachings of Buddhism. However, now the age of capitalist society marked by class conflict is coming to an end, and the emergence of a higher, scientifically based society characterized by personal equality is approaching!

Thus, the non-theistic and non-soul ideas of original Buddhism are set to be revived alongside the emerging social class, and the day will come when the old Buddhist teachings will be reexamined and cleared away.

CHAPTER 4: MODERN PEOPLE ARE NOT SATISFIED WITH ILLUSORY HAPPINESS; THEY WANT TO FULLY ENJOY REAL HAPPINESS IN THEIR EVERYDAY LIVES

17. The Powerlessness of Idealistic Spirituality

The third issue is that modern people do not desire the spiritualism or ecstatic states that traditional religious figures have preached but rather a comprehensive happiness that encompasses all aspects of life. What, then, is the most fundamental demand that truly reflects the nature of human beings? And how should Buddhists approach this issue?

This has already been addressed in our first two critiques, where the heavenly “beyond” refers to an ideal society on earth. Therefore, there is no such thing as a spiritual life detached from material existence; concepts like “God” or “spirit” are mere illusions that project earthly life into a heavenly image. Consequently, faith based solely on the reliance on external power is meaningless. If we understand that we must secure happiness on earth through our own efforts, then mere spiritualism can no longer be accepted. However, despite this, the majority of current religious figures resemble brave Don Quixotes, intoxicated by so-called spiritualism, consciously or unconsciously confining the masses to dark chambers of illusory happiness. They incessantly proclaim the cultivation of national spirit, practicality and strength, moral guidance of thought, and total mobilization of education, among other things.

Regarding this matter, at the Japanese Religions Conference held in Tokyo from June 5–8, 1928, the Minister of Education at the time, Shōda Kazue 勝田主計, delivered a congratulatory message to the one thousand two hundred religious representatives gathered from across the country, including notable figures from Buddhism, Christianity, and Shinto. His words can be said to represent the intentions of contemporary religious practitioners:

How should we overcome the social unrest that plagues the modern world? It can be said that it is complex and intertwined with numerous factors. However, if we trace it back to its origins and delve deep into its causes, we find that it is fundamentally rooted in materialism. Therefore, while various social measures may serve as symptomatic treatments, as a fundamental solution we must first strive to overcome the dominance of materialism. However, the overcoming of materialism should be pursued through an elevation of spiritual values. When people live with pure beliefs and are filled with warm compassion, the struggles over interests will cease, class conflict will gradually disappear, and a society once marked by anxiety will transform into a world of enlightenment. Nonetheless, the elevation of spiritual values ultimately relies on the power of religion. . . . Upon this occasion of the Japanese Religions Conference, I express my sincere hopes and earnestly enjoin your collective efforts.

Clearly their intention is to elevate spiritual values, and they believe that the ultimate mission of religion is to “overcome materialism.” They view it as their task to construct an ideal society through this type of religious movement.

However, despite their best efforts, society is increasingly plagued by insecurity. Tenant farmer disputes, labor conflicts, and school disturbances not only continue to increase in number but are also becoming increasingly virulent. Moreover, the decadence of movements like “erotic, grotesque, nonsense” continues to prevail unchecked throughout urban and rural areas. In response, so-called religious movements have proven completely ineffective in addressing these issues, exposing their ineptitude. The question arises: Why is this the case? Can we truly consider such a spiritualistic approach to be the essence of Buddhism? Should it even be considered as such? Let us examine this matter by dividing it into the following four aspects:

1. The teachings of the Buddha and the patriarchs.
2. The rise and fall of religious organizations and their relationship to society.
3. The state of Buddhist organizations in the modern era.
4. The true nature of spiritualism.

18. The Teachings of the Buddha and the Patriarchs

a. The Buddha’s Teachings on Economics

When the Buddha attained enlightenment and began preaching, his first sermon was delivered to five religious seekers in Deer Park. The doctrine he preached was as follows:

O seekers! In this world there are two extreme ways of living. One is the path of excessive desire for wealth and bodily pleasures, which ultimately leads to suffering. The other is the path of neglecting material existence and seeking only spiritual stability, which results in being trapped in worldly worries. I have escaped from these extremes and discovered the middle way. It is the path of balancing material well-being with the improvement of spiritual life, leading to infinite happiness. (A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, p. 27)

The middle way entails [the teaching of] “no-self,” as mentioned above in the response to the question posed by the disciple Mālukyaputta. The practice of no-self specifically involves the practice of the Ennobling Eightfold Path, which consists of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. In essence, it means perceiving life as it is, recognizing delusions clearly, and living in accordance with the correct way of life. Delusions arise from the concepts of “self” and “desire.” Therefore, awakening entails recognizing “interdependent co-arising” and “non-self,” and engaging in mutual support and coexistence in social life. The ideal of the monastic community (sangha) embodies this principle. However, from the perspective of the middle way, the current form of conceptual spiritualism is clearly a distorted form of Buddhism. The Buddha did not ignore material existence; he insisted that the economy, which is the foundation of social life, cannot be at all neglected.

For example, in the Upāsaka Precepts Sutra, it is written: “After first learning worldly matters in accordance with the Dharma and being well-versed in them, one should then seek wealth in accordance with the Dharma.” As for the method of handling acquired wealth: “If one acquires wealth, one should divide it into four parts: one part should be offered to one’s parents, oneself, one’s spouse, and one’s dependents; two parts should be invested and used in business in accordance with the Dharma; and the remaining part should be saved for future needs.”

As for the teachings on the method of preserving this wealth: “Good man, do not donate your possessions to four types of individuals: the elderly, those who live far away, evildoers, and the powerful.” “Donate” here refers to entrusting or depositing money. This fourfold calculation is also mentioned in the Sigālovāda Sutra and the Saṃyukta Āgama.

The Sigālovāda Sutra enumerates six causes of reckless spending, cautioning against excessive drinking, indulging in nightlife, indulging in entertainment and amusements, engaging in gambling, associating with bad companions, and succumbing to laziness. Furthermore, the Buddha emphasizes other causes of wealth depletion including calamities caused by the king (representing present-day exploitation), bandits, water disasters, fire disasters, natural wear and tear, low interest rates, failure to repay debts, destruction by enemies, and the reckless spending of wayward children.

On one occasion, a young boy named Bhaddiya approached the Buddha seeking a method to live comfortably. In response, the Buddha taught him the following “four foundations of success”:

1. Skillfulness in one’s occupation: this refers to being proficient in one’s chosen profession.
2. Competence in wealth management: this entails effectively managing and safeguarding one’s wealth.
3. Associating with good friends who possess joyful knowledge: this involves associating with virtuous companions who lead a righteous life.
4. Practicing moderation in expenditure and avoiding both extravagance and stinginess: this means living within one’s means and not falling into wastefulness or miserliness.

These teachings provide guidance on how to live a comfortable and balanced life.

Indeed, when we examine these teachings, it becomes evident that Buddhism is not merely a form of spiritual idealism. The essence of Buddhist faith lies rather in the diligent pursuit of a disciplined and rational way of practical living. It promotes the practice of a genuine middle path that differs from the formal austerities and speculative contemplation found in Brahmanism and other religious practices.

b. Teachings of the Sect Founders on Practical Life

After the passing of the Buddha, Buddhism gradually became more speculative and conceptual. However, the successive revolutionary movements that eventually arose always contained aspects of the fundamental spirit of the Buddha, adapted to the needs of their respective times.

In the fifth year of Tenchō 天長 (828), during the reign of Emperor Junna 淳和 (ca. 786–840), Kōbō Daishi 弘法大師 established a private university called Shugei Shuchiin 綜芸種智院 in Kyoto. It became famous for opening the path of learning to children of humble backgrounds. At that time, Kyoto had one national university and five other private schools, but none of them served as educational institutions for the masses; they were primarily educational establishments for the nobility. In his inaugural address, Kōbō Daishi expressed the following sentiment: “Currently, in this splendid city, there exists only one university, and there is no place for common schools. Thus there is no opportunity for children of humble backgrounds to seek knowledge.” (The phrase “no opportunity to seek knowledge” implies not knowing which direction to pursue [note by Seno’o].) In the same inaugural address, we find the following demand: “The expression ‘a person cannot live on an empty gourd’ is attributed to Confucius. The saying ‘All beings depend on food and shelter’ is a teaching attributed to Śākyamuni Buddha. Therefore, if one desires to propagate the path [of the Buddha], it is essential to provide food to people without fail.”

If one is a gourd hanging on a tree for a year or one hundred years, bread is of no use. However, all humans, as living beings, rely on clothing, food, and shelter. Therefore, if you seek to guide people with good thoughts, first provide them with an ample supply of bread. Kōbō Daishi was truly an outstanding social activist of his time.

While Buddhism faced difficulties during the periods of Kōbō and Dengyō 伝教, it was Hōnen and Shinran who broke through the challenges and transformed the face of Buddhism. It is said that Hōnen instructed his students to scatter his own cremated ashes in the Kamo 鴨川 River, but particularly noteworthy is Shinran’s embrace of married life and consumption of meat, which boldly liberated Buddhism from empty spiritualism. The nenbutsu faith they advocated, with its focus on “relinquishing impure lands and aspiring for the Pure Land,” may appear to negate reality at first glance. However, depending on how one views it, it can be seen as a religious revolution that, in stark contrast to the self-power teachings of Zen, affirmed the authentic and unadorned reality of everyday life.

When it comes to Nichiren, later followers carry him around as if he were the great champion of spiritualism. However, the same can be said about the Master [i.e., Nichiren]. Regarding his lifelong assertion found in On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land, he later revealed the motive for his writings, stating: “Those who would govern the country must understand the principles of governance.” Social scientists assert that politics is an intensive expression of economic power. The intended purpose of On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land, recommended to the Hōjō 北条 clan as a guiding principle for politics, is clearly aimed at alleviating the poverty-stricken masses of that time. Let’s examine the beginning of this work:

Once there was a traveler who spoke these words in sorrow to his host: “In recent years, there have been unusual disturbances in the heavens, strange occurrences on earth, and famine and pestilence, all affecting every corner of the empire and spreading throughout the land. Oxen and horses lie dead in the streets, and the bones of the stricken crowd the highways. Over half the population has already been carried off by death, and there is hardly a single person who does not grieve.”

Thus, the Master completely rejected the illusory, individualistic, speculative, unplanned, and apolitical social movements of the eight and ten schools of the period, which were both mutually opposed and self-promoting. His intention was to establish an ordered and politically oriented Buddhist revolution. This is evident in the sharp focus of the movement, which was always directed toward converting the ruling classes while regarding the devotion of the common people as secondary. And as a method for prohibiting the various sects, it is written that [Buddhists] should “cease giving alms to wicked priests and instead all come over to the side of the good,” among other things. We can interpret this assertion as a call for economic sanctions, which aligns well with the earlier statement of Kōbō Daishi, who emphasized the importance of providing bread (sustenance) to individuals. In any case, it serves as strong evidence that any ideological movement that ignores the importance of basic sustenance is ultimately powerless.

I have presented a few representative examples but the essence of each sect founder’s Buddhism, despite their differing forms, was always a pure expression of compassionate love that responded to the suffering of the masses. Throughout history, the common people have always lived in deprived conditions. How could social activists who seek to alleviate their suffering be satisfied with empty preaching alone? Only when they are not, will the numerous oppressions imposed by the ruling class become instead revered scars of honor for the masses, serving as sources of lasting gratitude and aspiration.

It is true that each sect [of Buddhism] possesses a considerable amount of idealistic and spiritualistic literature. However, it will suffice to explain here that the attitudes of the founders and early leaders of these sects were not limited to the abstract beliefs or empty spiritualism that current practitioners of each sect hold.

19. The Rise and Fall of Religious Organizations and Their Relationship to Society

a. The Rise and Fall [of Buddhism] in India and China

The next topic is a social analysis of the development of religious organizations. As we delve into this historical examination, we will undoubtedly witness the definitive defeat of so-called abstract faith and spiritualism, leaving no room for debate.

First, it is a fact that during the time of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic community thrived in direct proportion to the involvement of kings, wealthy individuals, and their power and economic resources. In the third year after the Buddha began his preaching, King Bimbisāra of Magadha embraced Buddhism and donated the Veluvana Bamboo Grove Monastery. With this, the influence of Buddhism rapidly expanded, spreading throughout the entire kingdom of Magadha, with the city of Rājagṛha as its center. It was during this time that Śāriputra, Maudgalyāyana, and hundreds of disciples entered the monastic order under the leadership of the Buddha. Prior to this, there were only around fifty or sixty disciples, but now their numbers swiftly grew to one thousand two hundred and fifty. Furthermore, there is the famous case of Anāthapiṇḍika, a wealthy merchant from Kosala who became a devotee and established the renowned Jetavana Monastery in the city of Savatthi. This grand construction consisted of sixteen large buildings, each with sixty chambers, accommodating more than a thousand Buddhist disciples. The magnificence of this monumental architecture, funded by immense wealth, initially moved the heart of Prince Jeta, who offered the land for the monastery. Subsequently, his father, King Prasenajit, also became a Buddhist believer. It goes without saying that the conversion of kings and influential individuals played a crucial role in gaining the support of the masses throughout the country.

Next, looking at the history of Buddhism after the passing of the Buddha, it can be observed that its golden age was ushered in during the reigns of Emperor Aśoka (ca. 300–232 BCE; r. ca. 269–232 BCE) and King Kaniṣka (r. 127–150). In the case of Emperor Aśoka, Buddhism started to decline around forty years after his death due to the persecution by the anti-Buddhist minister Pushyamitra, resulting in a revival of Brahmanism. Similarly, after the passing of King Kaniṣka, the fate of Buddhism was not as glorious. In China, Buddhism took root through the introduction and translation of scriptures by eminent figures such as Xuanzang 玄奘 (602–664) and Kumārajīva (Ch. Jiumoluoshi 鳩摩羅什; 344–414). However, it is undeniable that this significant undertaking also had the support of influential kings.

b. The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Buddhist Sects

This relationship [with power and wealth] was also true for Japanese Buddhism. Let’s briefly discuss the development of Buddhism in Japan. It is commonly believed that Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the sixth century, in the fourteenth year of the reign of Emperor Kinmei 欽明 [552], when Buddhist statues and scriptures were sent from the kingdom of Baekje 百濟 by King Seong 聖 [ca. 504–554; r. 523–554]. However, it is well-known that Buddhism was already nurtured by the powerful Soga clan during this early period. Regarding the sects of Japanese Buddhism, the Sanron 三論 sect was established by the [Goguryeo 高句麗] monk Hyegwan 慧灌 [Jp. Ekan; fl. 7th c.] in the second year of the Taika era [646] at the imperial court under Emperor Kōtoku 孝徳 [596–654; r. 645–654]. Then, the Hossō 法相 and Kusha 倶舎 sects were propagated by Dōshō 道昭 [629–700], and the Jōjitsu 成実 sect was established by Dōzō 道蔵 [fl. late 7th c.]. During the reign of Emperor Genmei 元明 [r. 707–715], Nara became the capital and the Kegon 華厳 sect was promoted by [the Korean monk] Simsang 審祥 [Jp. Shinjō; ?–742], while the Ritsu 律 sect was introduced by [the Chinese monk] Jianzhen 鑑真 [Jp. Ganjin (688–763)]. These six sects, known as the “six Buddhist schools of Nara,” gained popularity. However, it should be noted that all of these sects were nurtured solely by successive emperors or the nobility.

The flourishing of Heian 平安 period [794–1185] Buddhism can be attributed to the Tendai 天台 sect, centered around Mount Hiei 比叡, and the Shingon sect, centered around Mount Kōya, both of which were greatly supported by the patronage and protection of emperors Kammu 桓武 [r. 781–806] and Heijō 平城 [r. 749–758]. Thus, each of these religious organizations owned the vast temple lands (or temple fields) that were bestowed upon them, and the temples themselves expanded their territories further through acquisition and cultivation. As their economic power grew, they extended their religious networks in all directions. Regarding this matter, Hosokawa Kame’ichi 細川亀市 writes in the preface of his work, An Economic History of Japanese Temple Buddhism:

The temples, which clothed themselves in the guise of religion, stood firmly on a solid material foundation, possessing vast fields and facing the world. They wielded exclusive administrative and policing powers, exercising absolute control over the people without fear of anyone. This is nothing short of a remarkable spectacle in our social and economic history.

Indeed, the temples, as feudal lords, obtained such a position primarily through the temple estates, which were the very source of their activities.

Let’s examine a few examples to illustrate this point.

(i) Donations

In the fourteenth year of Enryaku 延暦 [795], Emperor Kammu donated one hundred cho 町 [a unit of measurement for agricultural land] of paddy fields in Ōmi 近江 to the temple of Bonshakuji 梵釈寺. Emperor Seiwa 清和 [850–881] made a donation in the sixth year of Jōgan 貞観 [864], contributing one hundred sixty-four cho of land in the Nagakami 長上 District of Tōtōmi 遠江 Province to Jōganji 貞観寺 temple. Emperor Shōmu 聖武 [701–756] made a significant donation in the first year of Tempyō 天平 [729]. He granted five thousand households and ten thousand cho of paddy fields to Tōdaiji 東大寺 temple.

(ii) Land Acquisition and Cultivation

Tōdaiji temple, in the third year of the Tenpyō-shōhō 天平勝宝 period [751], acquired four tan 反 [a unit of land measurement] and one hundred forty bu 歩 [a subunit of land measurement] of cultivated land in Takushoku 拓殖 Village, Ahai 阿拝 District, Iga 伊賀 Province. In the second year of Tenpyō-hōji 天平寶字 [758], they also purchased ten chōbu 町歩 [a unit of land measurement] of newly cultivated land in the same area for nine kanmon 貫文 [a unit of currency]. In the first year of Tenpyō-shōhō [749], Gangōji 元興寺 temple acquired seven dan 段 [a unit of area] of rice paddies in Kanda 神田 for eight kan 貫 [a unit of currency]. And in the first year of Tenpyō-shōhō, Kōfukuji 弘福寺 temple purchased twenty-one chōbu of cultivated land in Ōmi 近江 Province for two hundred and thirty kan.

Furthermore, another thought-provoking matter is that temples received donations of servants and engaged in money lending at high interest rates. Here are some examples:

1. Empress Kōken 孝謙 [718–770], in the first year of Tenpyō-hōji [757], donated two hundred government-owned slaves to Konkōmyōji 金光明寺. In the same year, the court noble Ōyake no Kasemaro 大宅可是麻呂 donated sixty-one slaves to Tōdaiji on two separate occasions. In the second year of the Tenpyō-jingo 天平神護 era [766], two hundred slaves, which he had purchased from the five provinces of Mino 美濃, Ōmi, Tango 丹後, Tajima 但馬, and Kawachi 河内 were sent to Tōdaiji.
2. On the twenty-second day of the third year of Chōroku 長禄 [1459], a passage from the promissory note taken by Muryōjuin 無量寿院 states, “The interest rate is to add forty mon 文 per month to the principal. Next autumn, it should be returned as part of the annual tribute from the southern provinces along with the principal.”

With an interest rate of forty mon per month for every one kan of borrowed money, this is an exorbitant interest rate of 48 percent. Furthermore, it is stated that if the principal and interest are not repaid, the borrower’s fields will be confiscated. Even the awe-inspiring Great Buddha of Nara and the magnificent architecture of Hōryūji 法隆寺 were products of immense economic power derived from squeezing the impoverished farmers and their boundless labor. It is evident that the society of the Heian period developed into a feudal society ruled by the warrior class as the estates flourished.

The primary characteristic of feudal society was that each lord privately owned land and peasants. In its early stages, temples also occupied vast tracts of lands and [owned large numbers of] peasants, making them virtual rulers in the secular realm and powerful landowners. However, the wheels of history spare no prosperity from eventually declining and perishing. Even the flourishing Heian Buddhism gradually had to yield its religious authority to the emerging sects of the Kamakura period, such as Jōdo 浄土, Zen, and Nichiren. What was the reason for this shift?

One reason for the shift from Heian Buddhism to Kamakura Buddhism can be attributed to the contrast in their approaches. Traditional Buddhism in the Heian period often relied on mystical formalism and intricate speculative philosophy, while Kamakura Buddhism adopted a more straightforward and accessible approach that resonated with the contemporary needs of the people. However, an even more significant reason lies in the evident movement of economic and social relations. According to historians, the protectors dispatched by the Kamakura shogunate—who later became the warlords of the Sengoku 戦国 period—unjustly exercised their power, usurping the estates and, as a result, temples gradually lost their economic strength as their lands were taken away. Another major reason was a backlash against the oppressive tribute imposed by the imperial temples acting as local landlords. One example of this occurred in the fifth year of the Eikyō 永享 era [1434], when the inhabitants of Mount Kōya petitioned for a reduction in their tribute due to famine. In response, the temple ordered, “Pay as you have always done.” To which the peasants replied:

Since we have been instructed to pay as we have always done, we will submit two koku 斗 and six shō 升 of rice, one koku, eight shō, and five gō 合 of miscellaneous grains, and one kanmon for public taxes. Apart from this, we make no claims to even a single portion of land from any ulterior motives.

There are numerous examples like this where the circumstances led to the decline of the Buddhist institutions associated with the imperial court while Kamakura Buddhism gained popularity among the masses, received support from the feudal lords, and gradually expanded. During the tumultuous Sengoku period, when intense conflicts prevailed, Buddhist sects were also engaged in sectarian disputes. However, as the Tokugawa 徳川 shogunate entered a period of unification, the internal conflicts subsided, especially during the reign of the third shogun, Iemitsu 家光 [1604–1651],