Senoo Giro

⚠  Provisional Entry  ⚠ This article provides an overview compiled by the editorial team, but it is explicitly slated for future expansion and revision by a dedicated specialist. See discussion page for further information.

Seno'o Girō 妹尾義郎 (1889–1961) was a Japanese lay Buddhist activist and founder of the Shinkō Bukkyō Seinen Dōmei 新興仏教青年同盟 (Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism), one of the most sustained and theoretically developed experiments in “Buddhist socialism” in prewar Japan. Beginning as a devotee of the Nichirenshugi 日蓮主義 (Nichirenism) movement, particularly the reformist current led by Honda Nisshō 本多日生, Seno'o gradually became disillusioned with sectarian Buddhism and Japanese nationalism over the course of the 1920s, turning increasingly toward socialism, Marxism, internationalism, and anti-capitalist activism. From 1931 until his arrest in 1936, he led the Youth League in a campaign that fused Nichiren-inflected Lotus Sutra devotion with an increasingly materialist, anti-capitalist, and revolutionary interpretation of the Buddhadharma. After months of detention and interrogation, Seno'o underwent political recantation (tenkō 転向) in 1937, but resumed left-wing Buddhist and pacifist activism after 1945. He remains a particularly striking example of a sustained attempt to fuse Buddhist doctrine and practice with radical socialist politics.

Biography

Seno'o Girō was born on December 16, 1889, in the village of Tōjō 東城, Nuka district 奴可郡, Hiroshima prefecture (now part of Shōbara city), the fourth son in a family of nine children. His father Tamejirō, a sake brewer, died while Seno'o was still young, and the family business later collapsed; his mother Haru, whose family claimed descent from the Ashikaga lineage, raised the family in increasingly straitened circumstances. Chronic illness—described at different points as bronchial catarrh, anemia, and later pulmonary tuberculosis—repeatedly interrupted Seno'o's education, forcing him to withdraw from Tokyo's elite First Higher School (Ichikō) in 1911. He was raised in a Jōdo Shinshū 浄土真宗 (True Pure Land) household, but during his convalescence a local tofu maker, Matsuzaki Kyūtarō 松崎久太郎, introduced him to the Lotus Sutra, initiating an intense engagement with the sutra and with Nichiren Buddhism that would profoundly shape his subsequent religious development.

After some years of drifting—including an unsuccessful attempt to pursue study in Shanghai, disrupted by the aftermath of China's 1911 Revolution, and a stint at a patent office in Japanese-occupied Taiwan—Seno'o embarked in 1915 on a pilgrimage to major Nichiren Buddhist temples and sacred sites. Taken in by the Nichiren priest Shaku Nikken 釈日研 at a small temple-orphanage in Sōja, Okayama prefecture, he was ordained as a Nichiren priest at Myōhonji in December 1915, at the age of twenty-six. Over the following years he became increasingly involved in the burgeoning Nichirenshugi movement. Seno'o's diary from this period records a sustained personal and religious crisis that intensified his devotional practice: the death of his mother in July 1916, whom he had nursed and converted to Lotus Sutra practice on her deathbed, and the near-total blindness of his elder brother Sadatarō 定太郎 in June 1917. Seno'o struggled to understand these afflictions in terms of the Nichirenist concept of hōbō 謗法 (slander of the Dharma) and its karmic consequences, responding with increasingly rigorous fasting and devotional practice. In April and May 1918, following consultations first with Honda Nisshō's associate Takagi Honjun 高木本順 and then with Honda himself, Seno'o resolved to remain a lay adherent (zaike 在家) rather than continue toward advancement within the ordained priesthood. From 1918, he worked under the mentorship of the Nichiren reformer Honda Nisshō at the latter's Tōitsudan 統一団 (Unification Group) in Tokyo. In November 1919, with Honda's encouragement, Seno'o founded the Dainippon Nichirenshugi Seinendan 大日本日蓮主義青年団 (Greater Japan Nichirenist Youth Corps), editing its journal Wakōdo 若人 (Youth) and building a nationwide network of student and lay chapters, including branches in colonial Korea and Taiwan. Seno'o's Nichirenism at this stage remained strongly nationalist and patriotic; in September 1920 he married Saitō Fumiyo, a fellow schoolteacher, and later named their first son after the naval strategist and nationalist thinker Satō Tetsutarō 佐藤鉄太郎.

During the 1920s, Seno'o's religious and political outlook underwent a gradual but profound transformation. The Great Kantō Earthquake of September 1923—and especially the mass violence against ethnic Koreans that followed—deepened doubts already emerging in his thought about human nature and the adequacy of contemplative or purely “spiritual” responses to social suffering. His subsequent involvement in mediating tenant-farmer disputes in 1924, which foundered when local landlords refused to reduce rents, brought him into more direct confrontation with the structural dimensions of rural poverty and social conflict. Through the later 1920s he read increasingly widely in Japanese and European socialist and Marxist literature, including Kawakami Hajime 河上肇, Yamakawa Hitoshi 山川均, Hosoi Wakizō 細井和喜蔵, Kautsky, Bukharin, Lenin, Marx, and Engels. At the same time, Seno'o became increasingly dissatisfied with what he regarded as the failure of established Buddhist institutions and the Nichirenist milieu in which he had worked to confront contemporary social and economic problems. By the end of the decade, these developments had led to his break with Honda Nisshō and the Tōitsudan and prepared the way for the explicitly anti-capitalist “Revitalized Buddhism” he would begin to articulate around 1930.

On April 5, 1931, Seno'o and roughly two dozen associates founded the Shinkō Bukkyō Seinen Dōmei (Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism) at a meeting held at Tokyo Imperial University, with uniformed police observing the proceedings. As chairman and principal intellectual and organizational leader, Seno'o oversaw the League's rapid expansion over the following five years, as it established twenty-six branches across twenty prefectures, published journals, pamphlets, and manifestos, and held annual national conferences. His political activities also expanded beyond the League: he joined the Shakai Taishūtō 社会大衆党 (Social Masses' Party), became active in socialist, labor, and anti-fascist movements, and, from April 1935, edited the labor journal Rōdō zasshi 労働雑誌, which became an important vehicle for the emerging Popular Front (jinmin sensen 人民戦線) movement against fascism. In June 1936, he ran unsuccessfully as a Popular Front candidate for the Tokyo Prefectural Assembly.

Seno'o's public activism ended abruptly when he was arrested on December 7, 1936, at the offices of Rōdō zasshi 労働雑誌. Under the Peace Preservation Law 治安維持法, police and prosecutors constructed a case alleging that Seno'o and the Youth League were working toward the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism and the emperor system, portraying him, in the language of the prosecution, as a communist “cloaked in the mantle of Buddhism.” After five months of detention and interrogation, Seno'o confessed and, in May 1937, underwent tenkō 転向 (political recantation), publicly repudiating his former political commitments and affirming loyalty to the emperor. The investigation widened as police assembled a case against the League from interrogation records, member statements, League publications, and other documentary evidence, interpreted as demonstrating its revolutionary aims. In October 1937, more than two hundred YLRB members were detained in a nationwide roundup; the organization was effectively destroyed, and twenty-seven members were eventually prosecuted. Seno'o himself was sentenced in 1939 to five years' imprisonment, reduced to three years on appeal in 1940, and was released early because of illness in 1942.

Following his release from prison in 1942, Seno'o largely withdrew from public political activity for the remainder of the war but returned to left-wing Buddhist and pacifist activism soon after Japan's surrender. He helped found the Bukkyō Shakaishugi Dōmei 仏教社会主義同盟 (Buddhist Socialist League) in 1946 and the Shinano Bukkyō Seinen Dōmei 信濃仏教青年同盟 in 1947, and served as chairman of the Zenkoku Bukkyō Kakushin Renmei 全国仏教革新連盟 (All Japan Buddhist Reform Alliance) from 1949. He joined the Japan Socialist Party 日本社会党 the same year and remained active in Buddhist and secular peace movements throughout the 1950s. Increasingly dissatisfied with what he regarded as the Socialist Party's political ambiguity, Seno'o joined the Japan Communist Party 日本共産党 in late 1959, describing the decision in his diary on January 1, 1960, as the fulfillment of a “long-cherished desire,” although he continued to express reservations about aspects of Communist politics. He also remained deeply troubled by his 1937 tenkō 転向, writing in 1957 of having “given in and converted” and condemning his own “weakness and compromise.” Seno'o died in 1961, at the age of seventy-one.

Ideas

Seno'o's mature thought, elaborated most fully in 『社会変革途上の新興仏教』 [Revitalized Buddhism on the Road to Social Reform] (1933) and developed across numerous essays during the 1930s, represents one of the most sustained attempts by a modern Buddhist thinker to bring Buddhist thought and practice into constructive engagement with Marxist social analysis and revolutionary politics. Against Marxist critics who dismissed religion as an opiate of the people, Seno'o argued that Buddhism, properly understood, was non-theistic, attentive to the material conditions of human existence, and oriented toward transformation in this world. At the same time, he maintained that Buddhism could supply an ethical and humanistic dimension lacking in narrowly economistic interpretations of Marxism. Śākyamuni Buddha, he argued, had taught neither belief in a creator god nor an eternal soul; popular reliance on Amida, Dainichi, and other transcendent buddhas could therefore function as an “opiate” little different from theistic religion. Against such forms of Buddhism, Seno'o sought to recover a this-worldly Buddhadharma grounded in teachings such as the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination.

Central to this project was Seno'o's radical reinterpretation of the Three Jewels (sanbō 三宝). Buddha came to represent the highest human ideal as realized in the historical Śākyamuni; Dharma became the principle of selfless love (muga-ai 無我愛), or what Seno'o sometimes called “no-self-ism” (mugaizumu 無我イズム), developing the Buddhist teaching of no-self into an ethic to be realized through concrete practice (jissen 実践); and Sangha, rather than referring primarily to the monastic community, was reimagined as an egalitarian communal society (kyōdō shakai 共同社会) free from exploitation. Buddhist “liberation” (kaihō 解放) thereby acquired an explicitly social and political dimension: liberation from attachment and egoism could not be separated from the transformation of the material conditions that produced exploitation and suffering.

Seno'o nevertheless insisted that Marxist analysis and economic transformation alone could not overcome the sources of suffering and exploitation. Capitalism required structural transformation, but economic reform by itself could not overcome the craving for wealth, power, and possession rooted in the ego. He therefore resisted mechanistic or narrowly economistic interpretations of historical materialism, insisting that social transformation had to be accompanied by the ethical transformation of persons through the practice of selfless love. At the same time, Seno'o sharply criticized Buddhist doctrines when they served to legitimate existing inequalities. He rejected appeals to karma and rebirth that explained poverty and social hierarchy as the consequences of actions in previous lives, as well as the Mahāyāna formula “differentiation is equality” (sabetsu soku byōdō 差別即平等), which he regarded as an abstract metaphysical reconciliation that obscured concrete and remediable injustice. In this respect, his critique strikingly prefigures aspects of the later criticism of hongaku 本覚 (original enlightenment) thought associated with the Critical Buddhist movement (Hihan Bukkyō 批判仏教). Complementing this critique was Seno'o's emphasis on hansei 反省 (self-reflection or critical self-examination). Reinterpreting Nichiren's Risshō Ankokuron 立正安国論, he turned a text that had frequently been appropriated for nationalist purposes into a demand that political authorities examine their own conduct and responsibility for social calamity rather than attributing disorder to religious error or external enemies.

Seno'o's “social Buddhism” (shakaiteki Bukkyō 社会的仏教) can also be situated within a wider interwar current of socially engaged religion. Ōtani Eiichi has drawn particular attention to its structural parallels with the “social Christianity” (shakaiteki Kirisutokyō 社会的基督教) of the sociologist and Congregationalist theologian Nakajima Shigeru 中島重. Both criticized the individualism and institutional passivity of established religion and envisioned their respective this-worldly ideals—the Buddha-land and the Kingdom of God—as cooperative societies to be realized through concrete social and political engagement.

Seno'o's ethic of selfless love was accompanied by an increasingly explicit rejection of political violence. This was evident in his distinctive interpretation of the Buddhist formula issetsu tashō 一殺多生 (“kill one to save the many”). Whereas contemporaries such as the ultranationalist Buddhist activist Inoue Nisshō 井上日召 invoked the phrase to justify political assassination, Seno'o radically reinterpreted its object: the “one” to be destroyed was the selfish ego, whose overcoming made possible service to others and to society. His use of the phrase was nevertheless later cited by the authorities as evidence of the allegedly violent and revolutionary character of his movement.

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Seno'o's radical Buddhism was also increasingly internationalist and anti-imperialist. The violence against Koreans following the Great Kantō Earthquake contributed to his growing rejection of ethnic and national exclusivism, while in the 1930s he opposed Japanese expansion in Manchuria and condemned forms of inequality and discrimination directed against Koreans, burakumin 部落民, and women. His rejection of boundaries extended to Buddhism itself. Seeking to overcome inherited sectarian divisions, Seno'o experimented with the invocation “Namu Shakamuni ya” 南無釈迦牟尼や and with institutional forms that might unite Buddhists around a common devotion to the historical Śākyamuni rather than allegiance to competing sectarian traditions.

The Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism

➣ Main article: Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism

Seno'o's ideas found their fullest institutional expression in the Shinkō Bukkyō Seinen Dōmei 新興仏教青年同盟 (Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism), which he founded in April 1931 and led until his arrest in December 1936. The League sought to translate Revitalized Buddhism into social and political practice, developing a nationwide network that eventually comprised twenty-six branches across twenty prefectures, with its own publications, annual conferences, and program of anti-capitalist, anti-militarist, and pan-sectarian Buddhist reform. During the mid-1930s, Seno'o and other League members also became increasingly involved in socialist, labor, anti-fascist, and Popular Front activities. Although the League attempted to continue after Seno'o's arrest and tenkō 転向 (political recantation), the nationwide arrests of October 1937 effectively destroyed the organization and brought this distinctive experiment in organized radical Buddhism to an end.

Writings

• Seno'o Girō (1921). 『光を慕ひて』 [In Pursuit of Light]. [An early autobiographical testimony of faith, recounting Seno'o's childhood illness, his discovery of the Lotus Sutra, and his conversion to Nichiren Buddhism.]

• Seno'o Girō (1924). 「平易なる日蓮主義」 [Nichirenism Made Easy]. 『若人』. [A three-part dialogue among a Nichirenist spokesman, a student, and a businessman, reflecting Seno'o's still-nationalist and class-conciliatory position during his years with the Dainippon Nichirenshugi Seinendan.]

• Seno'o Girō (1924). 「日米問題と日蓮主義」 [Japanese–American Problems and Nichirenism]. 『若人』. [Written in response to the 1924 United States Immigration Act, this essay counsels non-violent resistance and draws a parallel between Nichiren's call for national self-examination and Japan's own discrimination against Koreans, Chinese, and burakumin.]

• Seno'o Girō (1926). 「立正安国の現代的意義」 [The Modern Significance of the Risshō Ankokuron]. 『若人』. [An early sign of Seno'o's turn away from state-centered Nichirenism, criticizing "selfish nationalism" as a betrayal of Nichiren's insistence on the primacy of the Dharma over earthly rulers.]

• Seno'o Girō (1928). 「昭和維新」 [On the Shōwa Restoration]. 『若人』. [A two-part essay that moves from a celebration of benevolent imperial rule to an indictment of the zaibatsu and parliamentary politicians as the true "gravediggers" of Japan, marking Seno'o's decisive turn toward economic radicalism.]

• Seno'o Girō (1928). 「共産党事件に直面して仁王護国経の一節を読む」 [Confronting the Communist Party Incident: Reading a Passage from the Sutra for Humane Kings Protecting the Nation]. 『若人』. [(Annotation to be added.)]

• Seno'o Girō (1929). 「日蓮主義の時代的必要性」 [The Timely and Necessary Character of Nichirenism]. 『若人』. [A three-part essay arguing that authentic Nichirenism must side with the public against elites and engage directly with the socialist movement's struggle against capitalism.]

• [Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism] (1931). Founding proclamation and mission statement] (宣言, 綱領). [Drafted by Seno'o and read publicly at the League's founding meeting of April 5, 1931. See the original text at SD31FPM and its English translation at SD31FPM-T.]

• Seno'o Girō (1931). 「新興仏教への転身」 [Metamorphosis Toward a New Buddhism]. 『新興仏教の旗の下に』. [An early statement of the League's break with sectarian Buddhism, calling for direct refuge in the historical Buddha Śākyamuni and rejection of the capitalist economic system.]

• Seno'o Girō (1931). 「新興佛教運動の進路――一斉に佛陀の大傘下に帰れ――」 [The Course of the Revitalized Buddhism Movement: Return Together beneath the Buddha’s Great Banner!]. 『新興佛教の旗の下に』. [(Annotation to be added.)]

• Seno'o Girō (1931). 「新興佛教への転身」 [Conversion to Revitalized Buddhism]. 『新興佛教の旗の下に』. [(Annotation to be added.)]

• Seno'o Girō (1931). 「反宗教運動批判」 [A Critique of the Anti-Religious Movement]. 『新興佛教の旗の下に』. [(Annotation to be added.)]

• Seno'o Girō (1932). 「農村の窮迫と農村寺院の運動」 [The Crisis of the Countryside and the Rural Temple Movement]. 『新興佛教』. [(Annotation to be added.)]

• Seno'o Girō (1933). 『社会変革途上の新興仏教』 [Revitalized Buddhism on the Road to Social Reform]. [Seno'o's central theoretical work, arguing systematically that Buddhism is atheistic, materialist, and revolutionary, and laying out six "demands of the modern age" that a revitalized Buddhism must meet.]

• Seno'o Girō (1934). 「仏教と平和運動」 [Buddhism and the Peace Movement]. 『国民仏教聖典』. [(Annotation to be added.)]

• Seno'o Tetsutarō (妹尾鉄太郎) and Inagaki Masami (稲垣真美), eds. (1974–1975). 『妹尾義郎日記』 [The Diary of Seno'o Girō]. 7 vols. Kokusho Kankōkai. [Seno'o's personal diary, covering more than five decades of his life from 1909 to 1961; an indispensable primary source for reconstructing his private religious and political development, extensively drawn upon by Stephen Large and later biographers. Volume 4 covers the peak operational years of the Youth League (1931–1936).]

• Seno'o Girō, ed. Inagaki Masami (稲垣真美) (1975). 『妹尾義郎宗教論集』 [Collected Religious Writings of Seno'o Girō]. Daizō Shuppan (Daizō Sensho 17). [A posthumous one-volume anthology of Seno'o's essays and monographs, compiled by his principal biographer, and the essential source base for his published work. Most of the texts listed here are included in this volume.]

Secondary Literature in English

• Brons, Lajos (2022). A Buddha Land in This World: Philosophy, Utopia, and Radical Buddhism. punctum books, pp. 73–89. [An open-access philosophical study situating Seno'o and the Youth League within a comparative genealogy of "radical Buddhism" alongside Uchiyama Gudō, Lin Qiuwu, and others; note that its brief biographical sketch of Seno'o contains minor discrepancies with the diary-based scholarship of Shields and Large (e.g., on his birth year and on which family member's death first drew him to the Lotus Sutra).]

• Shields, James Mark (2017). Against Harmony: Progressive and Radical Buddhism in Modern Japan. Oxford University Press, ch. 6. [The most detailed English-language study of Seno'o to date, situating him within a broader genealogy of Meiji and Taishō progressive Buddhism and contrasting his career with those of Inoue Nisshō, Sano Manabu, and Kon Tōkō.]

• Shields, James Mark (2014). "Seno'o Giro: Life and Thought of a Radical Buddhist". In: Lewis, Todd (Ed.), Buddhists: Understanding Buddhism Through the Lives of Practitioners: 280–288. Wiley-Blackwell. [A concise, classroom-oriented biography written for a general readership; freely available through Bucknell University's open-access repository.]

• Shields, James Mark (2012). "A Blueprint for Buddhist Revolution: The Radical Buddhism of Seno'o Girō (1889–1961) and the Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 39.2: 333–351. [An open-access analysis of 『社会変革途上の新興仏教』, reading Seno'o's synthesis of Buddhism and Marxism alongside Claude Lévi-Strauss's and Jacques Derrida's remarks on the relationship between Buddhist and Marxist conceptions of "liberation."]

• Large, Stephen S. (1987). "Buddhism, Socialism, and Protest in Prewar Japan: The Career of Seno'o Girō". Modern Asian Studies 21.1: 153–171. [A foundational English-language political biography, drawing extensively on Seno'o's seven-volume diary, tracing his evolution from Nichirenist patriot to popular-front activist and prisoner of the state.]

• Lai, Whalen (1984). "Seno'o Girō and the Dilemma of Modern Buddhism: Leftist Prophet of the Lotus Sutra". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 11.1: 7–42. [The first substantial Western-language study of Seno'o, emphasizing his intellectual formation within Nichiren and Tendai thought and framing his career, via Robert Bellah, as an instance of Buddhist "prophetic individualism"; open access via the Nanzan Institute.]

Secondary Literature in Japanese

• Rizaki Kei (理崎啓) (2016). 『大凡の日々―妹尾義郎と宗教弾圧』 [Ordinary Days: Seno'o Girō and Religious Persecution]. Tetsuzandō. [Draws on Seno'o's diary to trace his psychological and intellectual survival of police surveillance, his 1937 tenkō, and his postwar peace activism through the Anpo protests.]

• Ōtani Eiichi (大谷栄一) (2013). 「報告5 近現代日本における仏教者の社会参加―妹尾義郎の仏教社会運動の試み」 [Report 5: Social Participation of Buddhists in Modern and Contemporary Japan: Seno'o Girō's Attempt at a Buddhist Social Movement]. 『宗教と社会』 19: 177–187, at 184–185. [A conference report situating the Youth League's reformist and activist wings, and its organizational relationships with allied and rival groups, within a comparative framework of "socially engaged" religion; open access via J-STAGE.]

• Miwa Zehō (三輪是法) (2011). 「妹尾義郎の日蓮信仰―大正五年から七年の日記を手がかりに―」 [Seno'o Girō's Nichiren Faith: Based on His Diary from Taishō 5 to 7]. In: 『インド仏教史仏教学論叢：仲澤浩祐博士古稀記念論文集』 [Essays on Indian Buddhist History and Buddhology: Festschrift for Dr. Nakazawa Kōyū's Seventieth Birthday]: 315–341. 山喜房佛書林. [A close diary-based reconstruction of Seno'o's 1916–1918 religious crisis (his mother's death, his brother's blindness, and his own illness) and his path to Honda Nisshō's Tōitsudan, prior to and separate from his later turn to socialism.]

• Ōtani Eiichi (大谷栄一) (2009). 「中島重の社会的基督教と妹尾義郎の社会的仏教」 [Nakajima Shigeru's Social Christianity and Seno'o Girō's Social Buddhism]. 『宗教研究』 82.4: 963–965. [A short comparative panel report identifying shared features—critique of religious individualism, this-worldly utopianism, and cooperative-society ideals—between Seno'o's Buddhist and Nakajima's Christian social movements of the early 1930s.]

• Ōtani Eiichi (大谷栄一) (2001). 『近代日本の日蓮主義運動』 [The Nichirenist Movement of Modern Japan]. Hōzōkan. [A broader scholarly history of modern Nichirenism that situates Seno'o and the Youth League within the wider trajectories of Tanaka Chigaku's and Honda Nisshō's movements.]

• Yoshida Shizukuni (吉田静邦) (1986). 「ファシズム期の農民運動と妹尾義郎（二）」 [The Farmers' Movement in the Fascist Period and Seno'o Girō, Part 2]. 『駒沢女子短期大学研究紀要』 19: 27–37. [The second installment of a two-part study of Seno'o's tenant-farmer activism of the early 1930s, tracing its grounding in his reading of the Lotus Sutra and assessing its significance and limitations against the wider prewar farmers'-union movement.]

• Matsune Takashi (松根鷹) (1975). 『妹尾義郎と「新興仏教青年同盟」』 [Seno'o Girō and the "Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism"]. San'ichi Shobō. [A critical historiographical study organized around the "gap between truth and memory" in received accounts of the League, drawing out internal dynamics and oral histories otherwise absent from Inagaki's foundational narrative.]

• Inagaki Masami (稲垣真美) (1974). 『仏陀を背負いて街頭へ―妹尾義郎と新興仏教青年同盟』 [Carrying the Buddha on Their Backs into the Streets: Seno'o Girō and the Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism]. Iwanami Shoten (Iwanami Shinsho). [The foundational Japanese-language biography, written by the editor of Seno'o's collected writings and diary, and the primary source underlying nearly all subsequent scholarship in any language.]

How to Cite This Article

Brons, Lajos (2026). "Seno'o Girō". The Radical Buddhism Project. Version of 22 September 2026. http://radicalbuddhism.net/wiki/Senoo_Giro.