SG33SHS-T

Original Japanese: Seno'o Girō (妹尾義郎) (1933). 『社会変革途上の新興仏教』 [Revitalized Buddhism on the Road to Social Reform]. Tokyo: 新興仏教青年同盟. 新興仏教パンフレット 3. Originally serialized as 「仏教学の再批判」 [A Critical Reconsideration of Buddhist Studies], 『新興仏教』, January, February, March, June, August, and September 1932; revised and expanded for pamphlet publication in February 1933.

English translation: Seno'o Girō (妹尾義郎) (2024). “Revitalized Buddhism on the Road to Social Reform.” Trans. James Mark Shields. The Eastern Buddhist 4.2: 1–80. © 2024 The Eastern Buddhist Society. Reprinted here with permission.

Preface

Today, we can see the decline of late-stage capitalism in politics and economics, and in urban and rural areas, while the lives of the masses have reached a peak of anxiety.

During this transitional period, what should we, as Buddhist practitioners who strive to live according to the noble and supreme ideal of saving humanity, do?

The sole task imposed upon us is the reorganization of Buddhism based on contemporary consciousness. This entails the establishment of an ideology and the firm belief that such an ideology should be accompanied by bold and concrete practices.

In this brief work, Chairman Seno’o 妹尾 boldly criticizes and rectifies traditional Buddhist studies, and calls for a leap toward a new era of Buddhist truth. We firmly believe that this essay will forcefully address the contradictions faced by young Buddhist practitioners in this transformative period and provide them with confidence and resolution.

We would like to express our gratitude to comrade Seno’o, Chairman of the Committee, for his great efforts in presenting this essay to the world as a part of a series of pamphlets from our League. At the same time, we eagerly await rigorous examination and sincere criticism of its contents by our comrades.

Central Executive Committee of the Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism

January 1933

Our Principles

1. We deeply revere Śākyamuni Buddha as the supreme embodiment of human character and strive to realize the construction of a buddha land based on the teachings of brotherly love and compassion.

2. We acknowledge that all existing religious organizations have become remnants that have desecrated the spirit of Buddhism, and we reject them while seeking to promote Buddhism for a new era.

3. We recognize that the current capitalist economic system is contrary to the spirit of Buddhism and hinders the well-being of the masses. We aim to reform it and bring forth a new society suited to the future.

Foreword

I was born into a Shin 真 [True Pure Land] sect family and was raised in an atmosphere of fervent nenbutsu 念仏 prayer. In the autumn of my twenty-first year, I fell gravely ill and was forced to drop out of school, teetering on the brink of death until the age of thirty. At that time, through some fateful circumstances, I seized upon the doctrine of Nichirenism and experienced a revival of health. Nichirenism was indeed for me the ultimate truth! With that conviction, for the past two two decades, I have completely devoted myself to the study and propagation of Nichirenism, often forsaking sleep and meals.

However, as a result of my efforts to sincerely embody the Buddhist spirit in which I now believed, albeit weakly, I found myself unable to restrain a fatal doubt against all established Buddhism, and I could not help but engage in thorough opposition [against institutional Buddhism].

For contemporary society, the conflicting denominations of sectarian Buddhism are no longer beneficial but rather harmful. Ideological evangelism of that sort is detestable opium for the contemporary mass movement.

In the spring of 1931, I embarked on a comprehensive assessment of Nichirenism, staking my entire life on it. Simultaneously, I began advocating for the dissolution and unification of all sectarian Buddhist denominations under the single name of the Buddha of Revitalized Buddhism while promoting a movement for the socioeconomic transformation of capitalism through collective efforts. It is important to note that there are those within the bourgeois class who merely toy with Buddhism, as well as monks and Buddhist scholars who make a living by peddling its teachings. However, if you genuinely grasp and practice the true spirit of Buddhism—the spirit of selflessness—in a timely manner, I firmly believe that you will come to share the same doubts and righteous indignation that I do.

Kōbō 弘法, Hōnen 法然, Shinran 親鸞, Dōgen 道元, Nichiren 日蓮, and the like are all exceptional pioneers who embarked on the path to buddhahood. Therefore, it is essential to show reverence and respect to them. However, to ignore the objective circumstances of our advanced modern society and to accept their teachings and rituals without question is, in fact, to tragically hinder the very practice of those predecessors who fervently dedicated themselves to the Buddha. In doing so, we are alienating [these figures and their practices] from the modern masses.

Awaken, comrades! Do not hesitate to bravely carry the torch passed on by our dead pioneers! Comrades should not cling to even the slightest bit of doubt about trusting the sect founders; our only attitude should be to “seek awakening above; benefit sentient beings below!” The times are changing! Only the brave who move forward, stepping over the corpses, are true comrades following the founders; and the founders themselves are living bodhisattvas who participate in the grand mission of building the buddha land, our ultimate ideal.

This essay, born out of such convictions, is a compilation of the reevaluation of traditional Buddhism that we attempted last year in our magazine, Revitalized Buddhism. It is aimed at reaching the masses of today and serves as a prelude to the reform of Buddhism and a physical assault on the fortress of established doctrines.

My only hope is that through the outstanding practice and understanding of comrades who fight alongside me, any immaturity and errors [found in this essay] will be rectified. It is my ultimate aspiration to truly contribute to the liberation of the masses.

January 31, 1933

In a corner of Zōshigaya 雑司ヶ谷 [Tokyo, Japan]

The author [Seno’o Girō]

Chapter 1: Introduction

1. Social Evolution

There are two attitudes observed in social life: a conservative attitude and a progressive attitude. The former seeks to hold onto subjective and faith-based beliefs while maintaining the status quo as much as possible, while the latter is characterized by an objective and critical approach that adapts to evolving social circumstances and reforms established practices accordingly. These two attitudes are inherently complementary and interdependent, as reflected in the old saying, “Review the old in order to understand the new.” In Buddhism, it is said that “faith without understanding increases ignorance, while understanding without faith fosters wrong views. Understanding and faith, harmoniously united, become the foundation for practice.” Wise understanding and unwavering conviction mutually complement each other, giving rise to a power- ful, practical life. Just as the left foot cannot move forward without the firm support of the right foot on solid ground, both attitudes are essential for societal progress. However, when it comes to the essential attitude for social life, it must be progressive. This is because, just as the right foot must follow suit and take a step forward, society itself inherently progresses and develops continuously. Therefore, it is imperative that our approach align with this progress and be oriented toward advancement.

For example, regarding Hegel’s philosophy that “everything that exists is rational, and everything that is rational exists,” Wilhelm II attempted to rationalize his own position as kaiser through the first clause [of that sentence]. On the contrary, Marx emphasized the second clause to assert the rationality of his revolutionary social movement. While the former statement may seem correct at first glance, it merely reflects a conservative attitude that disregards the inherent developmental nature of society. In a developing society, even previously rational entities eventually encompass growing contradictions and inevitably progress toward a more rational existence. Those who recognize this understand that the latter statement is more accurate. Transitions and transformations involve both subjective and objective conditions, and there may be instances where the timing is premature. In any case, the undeniable fact is that society is constantly evolving and changing. Therefore, an essential attitude for social life is a progressive stance that embraces and dialectically resolves all aspects of development. A conservative attitude, which fears or curses change, is either a result of ignorance or a self-serving attitude to defend one’s own interests, and it is not something young and idealistic members of society should embrace. An often-cited example is that the clothing of a growing child must gradually change in style and size; otherwise, it becomes useless and even harmful. Similarly, when we look at a chicken egg, the shell is an absolute necessity until a certain point. However, once the chick is nurtured and ready to emerge, the shell becomes an unnecessary obstruction and a potentially fatal barrier to new life.

Looking at our [Japanese] history, it is clearly one of constant change. The despotic rule of clans such as the Soga 蘇我 gave way—via the Taika reforms—to aristocratic governance, which was then replaced by warrior rule and eventually developed into bourgeois politics through the great revolution of the Meiji Restoration [1868]. We are now witnessing vigorous movements toward the emergence of a new society. When we observe world history, we see a similar process of transformation from autocratic rule to constitutional monarchy, republics, democracies, communism, and so on. While there may be some variations and peculiarities, just as there are differences in sensitivity and intelligence between children, every nation-state, without exception, follows the general trend of human history. It undergoes a gradual or rapid process of change, much like the transition from youth to adulthood and old age. Thus, there is no form of existence on earth that remains unchanging.

2. The Possibility of Buddhist Reform

Buddhism is no different; it is nothing but the principle of development and change. Indeed, the Buddhist teachings expounded by Śākyamuni Buddha have undergone a two-thousand-five-hundred-year history of division into thirteen schools and fifty-six sects. This history is a result of the objective conditions and circumstances of a changing society and not necessarily a product of subjective beliefs held by each of the sect founders. For example, Shinran’s acceptance of married priests and consumption of meat might have been considered a heretical reform within the Buddhist community at the time. However, today, there are no objections raised by [Japanese] Buddhist practitioners as it is ultimately seen to be a response to objective requirements and the recognition that “what is rational exists.” In the Sutra of Infinite Meanings, it is stated, “Infinite meaning arises from one dharma.” The “one dharma” refers to the true nature of reality, the very essence of the constantly evolving world. The fact that Buddhism has produced a vast array of teachings and scriptures, comprising eighty-four thousand doctrines and seven thousand volumes, is a testament to its nature as a product of changing social contexts. Therefore, as long as society continues to develop in the present and future, Buddhism can undergo limitless development and change without hindrance. It is through such adaptability that Buddhism can continue to maintain its social significance and value.

Currently, there is a widespread emergence of “new” voices in various sectors of society and culture, such as new sciences, new arts, new educational practices, and so on. What exactly do these “new” voices imply? It goes without saying that they signify the demand for the evaluation and transformation of the old cultural forms of the Meiji and Taishō [1912–1926] eras. Under such emerging social conditions, if Buddhism sticks to the old forms as they are, its fate will surely be nothing other than decay. The indifference of the masses toward established temple Buddhism already speaks volumes. If we are to have Buddhism for society, rather than society for Buddhism, then it is quite clear that the temple Buddhism of the Kamakura period of six or seven hundred years ago cannot simply be adapted to the present day. The old Buddhism must be thoroughly reevaluated and reformed both in terms of its teachings and its ritual forms. This is precisely why we are advocating a modern, revitalized Buddhism. If Buddhism is completely irrelevant to contemporary society, it should be unequivocally discarded. However, if it still possesses elements that can be useful when reexamined, then its teachings should be clarified in and for a modern context. The question of whether Buddhism has the potential to meet the essential demands of modern society requires careful consideration. But what exactly are the demands of contemporary society? This is a problem that needs to be scrutinized.

3. The Demands of Modern Society

1. Modern science denies the existence of supernatural gods and buddhas and advocates atheism.

2. Modern science rejects the belief in an afterlife and advocates materialism by denying the existence of spirits or souls.

3. Modern people are not satisfied with illusory happiness; they want to fully enjoy real happiness in their everyday lives.

4. The masses in modern society desire economic stability and thus demand the transformation of capitalism.

5. Awakened humanity transcends nationalism and promotes internationalism.

6. Progressive Buddhists aim to reconcile sectarian Buddhism and ardently desire its unification.

Let us briefly examine the validity of each of these six items, critically evaluate established Buddhism, and in line with the Buddhist truth, outline the possibilities for a revitalized Buddhism.

Chapter 2: Modern Science Denies the Existence of Supernatural Gods and Buddhas and Advocates Atheism

4. Characteristics of Religion as Explained by Social Science

Traditionally, the distinctive feature of religious forms can be summarized by the phrase Engels employs in his Essay on Feuerbach: “If religion can exist without its God, then alchemy can exist without its philosopher’s stone.” Religion referred to the belief in a transcendent, absolute deity whom people worshiped and prayed to in order to seek grace and salvation. While the Christian God serves as a typical example, even the diverse Buddhist traditions, although they do not emphasize the creation of the world, still possess a similar concept of a transcendent, superhuman absolute. Amida Buddha in Shin Buddhism, the Eternal Buddha in Nichiren Buddhism, and Dainichi Nyorai in Shingon Buddhism, among others, all fall into this category. In Zen Buddhism, the original teachings do not inherently involve such an absolute being, but in practice, various deities like Yakushi Nyorai 薬師如来 and Kannon 観音 Bodhisattva are worshiped indiscriminately. However, one may question whether these transcendent deities truly exist, and furthermore, whether Buddhism originally took such form? The answer [to both of these questions] is, of course, “No”!

Marxism is an ideology that vividly denies the existence of such [transcendent] beings. According to Marxism, all religions are nothing more than “fantastic reflections in the minds of humans of external forces dominating their daily lives” (Engels). In other words, as Marx put it, “Man created religion, religion did not create man.”

[Marxism] thus takes as its object the modes of early human existence that gave rise to religion and explains these from two perspectives.

5. Ignorance Gives Birth to the Gods

The first point is this: Lenin said, “Fear created the gods,” while according to [Johannes de] Gorter, inexplicable forces gave birth to them. In either case, the fear that ignorant and superstitious ancient humans felt toward “inexplicable” natural phenomena led them to believe that these phenomena were the work of “gods.” From the desire to somehow escape from unavoidable disasters, they would prostrate themselves, pray, or even offer sacrifices. Take lightning, for example. It was an incomprehensible phenomenon involving flashes and booms, and if it struck, humans and livestock would be instantly killed, and houses and buildings would be torn apart and burned. For primitive people who did not know how to avoid it, they considered this to be evidence of the absolute power of “gods.” This is similar to the way an infant perceives everything anthropomorphically. In the past, people used to perceive various mysterious natural phenomena in their daily lives, such as raging waves, and would worship the dragon god for safe navigation. [Likewise, they would] pray to the wind god for protection from wind disasters and perform rain rituals for droughts. They would view these phenomena as supernatural acts of gods and be filled with fear, earnestly seeking the appeasement of these “gods.” However, with today’s advanced human intellect, phenomena like lightning can be understood as the electrical interaction of opposing currents, and they are no longer seen as inexplicable. The fear associated with such phenomena has been completely resolved with just one or two lightning rods. Modern science has provided clear explanations for marine navigation and earthquakes whereas [in the past these phenomena] led to humans attempting to utilize various gods [to accomplish this aim].

6. Economic Life Also Produces Gods

The second explanation is that gods are products of economic life. For example, let us examine the emergence of ujigami 氏神 (clan deities).Ujigamirefer to the highest authority figures within a clan or lineage. In the past, members of a community relied on these authority figures for guidance in hunting, farming, and other livelihood activities. Moreover, in the face of external threats, such as attacks from other clans, they would unite around these leaders for defense and security. Naturally, these authority figures came to be revered as the heads of the clans. In the case of the Japanese emperor, for instance, it is argued that the emperor, by consolidating various clans and becoming the ultimate authority figure, embodies the concept of the highestujigami. As a result, the emperor is viewed as a sacred being, symbolizing the well-being of all clans. This theory offers a plausible explanation for the reverence bestowed upon the emperor.

The origin of such ujigami can also be understood by considering Engels’s statement when discussing the origins of ethnic religions that “God assumed a form of earthly power over celestial power.” It reads as follows: “The elders of the tribe organize, manage, command, and plan labor as guardians of accumulated experience in production, representing the principle of active creativity. On the other hand, the rest of the members listen obediently, accept commands, conform to the plans set from above, and act according to the will of others. These relations of production, especially when applied to the whole universe, become a model for examining human beings themselves.”

When we look at this in comparison with Japanese mythology, it becomes an intriguing topic. Here it is suggested that the essence of the “gods” who dominate humans essentially lies in their economic control over the earthly realm, as human beings created the illusion of gods due to their constrained economic lives. A prime example of this is the main deity of Izumo Taisha 出雲大社 (Izumo Grand Shrine), Ōkuninushi no Ōkami 大国主大神, who is considered the god of economic matters. The concept of kannazuki 神無月 (the month without gods) in the lunar calendar, which refers to the absence of gods in various provinces because they gather at Izumo Grand Shrine, is another illustrative example. It signifies a time when the autumn harvest has been mostly completed, and the chiefs of each community, representing the highest authority, gather in Izumo, which was the central administrative region at that time, to hold regional conferences. During these conferences, they discuss progress reports, taxation, and plans for the following year. Therefore, it signifies a period when local leaders, representing the uji (clans), convene in Izumo to engage in discussions regarding governance and economic matters. Consequently, as society develops democratically, production systems become fully democratized and economic domination diminishes, leading to a society where individuals coexist and prosper equally; the need for such prayers to the “gods” thus naturally diminishes, and the tangible belief in them gradually disappears. In short, it is reasonable to understand that once a society reaches a stage where social life is based on equal coexistence and mutual prosperity, and production is democratically organized, the reliance on such “gods” for prayers becomes unnecessary. This is analogous to the fact that healthy individuals have no need to pray to gods or buddhas for healing, whereas sick people do.

In essence, whether it be the initial natural phenomena or the subsequent economic relationships, the true nature of the gods that were traditionally believed to exist has been fully dissected, and their illusionary nature has been thoroughly examined and accounted for through the advancement of science and the increase of productive forces. Upon full consideration, this perspective seems to be correct.

7. The Salvific Power of Dubious Gods

Furthermore, as a method to deny the existence of omnipotent gods or buddhas from another perspective, a passage from Archbishop Brown’s book Communism and Christianism can be cited as a brilliant and insightful critique. It reads as follows:

If God desires something and cannot do it, then He is impotent, and this contradicts the nature of God. If He can do it but chooses not to, then He is evil. Both cases contradict the nature of God. If He neither desires it nor can do it, then He is both evil and impotent. If He both wishes to get rid of evil and can do so, which is the only conceivable way to imagine God, then how is it possible that there is evil on earth?

This objection is valid. Indeed, if there were an omnipotent God or compassionate saviors like Amida Buddha, the Eternal Buddha, or Dainichi Nyorai, then why does society continue to suffer in such a hellish state? Even parents in ordinary households, without waiting for their children’s pleas, provide bread and clothing according to the seasons. Yet, when it comes to seeking salvation, one must plead and even then receive only a meager offering of rice and salt. If we observe the pastors and priests themselves who preach such teachings, we see how many of them expose their disgraceful behavior and hypocrisy regarding economic issues. In human life, while bread alone may not be sufficient, the resolution of the foundational issue of bread becomes even more crucial. This should be understood. However, despite this, those who forcefully propagate illusory happiness and deliberately disregard economic problems not only further prove the impotence and nonexistence of God but also commit a despicable crime by deceiving and robbing the people of true happiness. In this regard, Lenin’s criticism is appropriate.

Religion teaches submission and endurance on earth to those who toil and suffer throughout their lives, comforting them with the hope of heavenly rewards. However, for those who live off the labor of others, religion teaches them to practice charity on earth, thus offering a cheap way to justify their exploitative practices while selling them tickets to heavenly happiness at a considerable price. Religion is the opium of the people.

In response to this famous charge, leading temples and religious institutions such as Higashi 東 [East] and Nishi 西 [West] Honganji 本願寺, Mount Minobu 身延, and Mount Kōya 高野 have no choice but to solemnly submit without room for rebuttal. Opium is a narcotic, and those who sell such a deceptive narcotic while disguising themselves as wise and virtuous must be considered enemies of the people. Furthermore, if we consider the prevalence [within these sects] of superstitious practices such as fortunetelling and the interpretation of good and bad luck, they reflect a complacent attitude that seeks happiness by relying on external controlling powers, disregarding social transformation and personal effort. Such superstitions may generate social sins that distort the normal evolution of culture, including the development of fields like medicine. The aversion to certain marital unions expressed in the Chinese astrological sign hinoe-uma 丙午 and the reliance on the “twenty-eight mansions” to determine auspicious and inauspicious dates are representative examples of foolish superstitions. The emergence of these superstitions is also related to the delusion associated with the belief in supernatural gods and buddhas. Therefore, the clarification and promotion of atheism must be an important foundational move to sweep away these superstitions wholesale.

8. Buddhism Is Atheistic

Indeed, the belief in the existence of supernatural gods and buddhas is not inherent to Buddhism. In fact, Buddhism originally emphasized the teaching that “the supreme reality for man is man.”

In the religious context prior to Buddhism in India, the predominant belief system was Brahmanism, according to which the creator of the universe was the supreme god known as “Brahman” and humanity was considered his creation. It was believed that the Brahmin caste, who were born from the head of Brahman, held the highest social status and were responsible for conducting rituals and worshiping Brahman. The kṣatriyas, born from the chest, belonged to the second caste associated with military and political functions. Thevaiśyas, born from the abdomen, belonged to the third caste engaged in economic activities, and theśūdras, born from the feet, belonged to the fourth caste and were considered slaves. It was believed that all aspects of their lives, including their fortunes and misfortunes, were governed by Brahman.

However, it was the Buddha himself who, after attaining enlightenment, went into the streets and decisively rejected Brahmanism and its hierarchical social structure. He introduced the teachings of the “four ennobling truths” and the “twelve links of interdependent co-arising,” paving the way for a new path to liberation. Therefore, thehistorical figure who courageously challenged the dominance of Brahmanism and propagated the teachings of liberation was none other than the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama.

A specialized interpretation of the “four ennobling truths” and the “twelve links of interdependent co-arising” will be omitted here. In essence, they represent the teachings of causality and the practice of selflessness, which aim at the liberation of humanity. According to the Buddha’s understanding, all phenomena in the universe, referred to as “the world,” are not created by a “god” but exist as interdependent and constantly changing manifestations of reality. Therefore, there is no eternal and unchanging social order, nor does an absolute being called “god” exist. If one seeks something permanent, it is simply the fact of interdependence—the law of interdependent co-arising. Based on this fact, the fundamental attitude toward human liberation in daily life should naturally involve the negation of individual egos and private ownership, and instead foster a communal and cooperative social existence.

The teachings of the “three marks of existence” in Buddhism—the impermanence of all phenomena, the selflessness of all things, and the tranquility of nirvana—also serve to illustrate these principles. In essence, they convey the understanding of the above principles.

If we examine the matter further, we can find evidence in the cases of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana, two prominent Brahmin teachers with hundreds of disciples who chose to abandon Brahmanism and become disciples of the Buddha. The reason behind their decision was that one day, they heard from a fellow Buddhist disciple named Assaji that the Buddha taught, “All things arise due to causes and conditions, and they cease to exist when those causes and conditions cease.” Upon hearing this, Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana immediately understood the principle of the impermanence of all things, which states that anything born is subject to decay and cessation. This understanding led them to renounce their previous beliefs and embrace the teachings of the Buddha.

Truly, to attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death, one must embark upon a path of discerning understanding regarding the ironclad law of causality, which states that all living beings are subject to impermanence and will inevitably perish. Furthermore, it is said that during the Buddha’s final moments before his passing, his dear disciple Ānanda expressed sorrow over the thought of being left without the Buddha’s guidance in the future. In response to this, the Buddha provided teachings and guidance, comforting Ānanda in his grief.

I have already established the sutras and precepts. You, my disciples, should simply study these sutras and precepts and diligently practice them. I too am among the (monastic) sangha.

In essence, this means, “Even if I pass away, the truth I have taught will not perish. If you sincerely practice this truth and do not lose it, I will always exist among the community of bhikkus, just as before.” Similarly, the passage “O bhikkus, rely on yourselves as the lamp and rely on the Dharma as the refuge, and do not rely on anything else as the lamp or as the refuge” from the Nirvana Sutra clearly denies the existence of an absolute god. In this way, fundamental Buddhism negates the existence of a transcendent absolute god. Why, then, has it transformed into the present-day form of a theistic religion? I will explain this issue in the subsequent chapters on the question of the soul.

In short, the period following the Buddha’s death was a transitional one involving various transformations due to the prevailing social circumstances. As such, correcting the distorted teachings of Buddhism today is not a blasphemy but rather a revival of true Buddhism. Dr. Takakusu 高楠 also rightly states, “Both Amida Buddha and Dainichi Nyorai are manifestations of the Buddha’s ideals, and they are the perfected forms of human beings. Therefore, they have no meaning whatsoever as creator gods, ruling gods, or gods of judgment.” If we express this in the words of Marx, as I previously quoted, “The critique of religion ends with the doctrine that the supreme reality for man is man.” Therefore, true Buddhists should praise and revere the personality of the historical Śākyamuni Buddha, who embodied the ideals of Buddhism. Worshiping abstract Buddhas like Amida as existing, absolute beings is now one hundred percent nonsensical. We must completely resolve these matters without anxieties or attachments. Faith in the Buddha is akin to Confucians revering Confucius and communists admiring Lenin; it does not carry any theistic or external authoritarian meaning. The crux of the issue always lies in reverence for the Buddha and the contemporary practice of his teachings.

O bhikkus! Even if someone is my disciple who follows behind me, holding the hem of my robe and treading in my footsteps, if that person is consumed by greed and their mind is disturbed, they are far from me, and I am also far from them. This is because they do not see the Dharma, and one who does not see the Dharma does not see me. However, even if they are a hundred miles away from me, if they have abandoned desires and possess a pure heart, they are by my side. This is because they see the Dharma, and by seeing the Dharma, they see me. (A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, p. 36)

As is clear from this passage, since Buddha is a personified truth, there is plenty of possibility for Buddhism even in the scientific modern age. When we teach the Buddhadharma to practitioners, they naturally come to value the Buddha’s character, which leads in turn to a deeper and renewed practice. There is not a hint of irrationality here. Fundamental Buddhism was not originally opium. After all, Buddhism is atheism. “Revitalized Buddhism” must first extol this aspect and then liquidate the delusional nature of established, institutional Buddhism at the same time as we liquidate the opium-like role that established Buddhism plays in society.

Chapter 3: Modern Science Denies the Afterlife and Advocates Materialism

9. The Meaning of the Afterlife and the Immortal Soul

Our second analysis concerns the issue of the afterlife, which refers to the immortality of the soul as taught in traditional Buddhism. However, before delving into this issue, it is essential to clearly define and understand the meaning of otherworldliness and immortality of the soul, as the interpretation of these terms can vary and lead to confusion.

Higan 彼岸 refers to the boundary, or crossing point, between life and death symbolizing the realm of delusion and suffering (i.e., this shore), while implying the attainment of awakening (nirvana) as the other shore. It can also metaphorically represent an ideal world on earth. Therefore, the term higanshugi 彼岸主義 can be used to describe various concepts—including that of a communist society—that might be considered forms of an afterlife based on [the] scientific inevitability [of their coming to pass]. However, in the context of the discussion here, higanshugi specifically refers to beliefs about the immortality of the soul after death, such as the Christian concept of heaven, paradise in Pure Land Buddhism, or the Pure Land of Vulture Peak in Nichiren Buddhism.

When it comes to the content of “immortality of the soul,” there has been a tendency in recent times to substitute phrases like “immortality of the self” in an attempt to support this belief. Various explanations are offered from philosophical, scientific, biological, social, and inspirational perspectives. I will explain these in relation to (1) philosophy, (2) science, (3) biology, (4) social achievements, and (5) lasting influence. Philosophically, it is argued that while phenomena may perish, the essence of the self is immortal, much like water remains even when bubbles disappear. This is similar to some of the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism, such as the doctrine of interdependent co-arising and the gate of “thusness” (such as one finds, for example, in the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana). Scientifically, proponents cite theories of the indestructibility of matter and energy to assert the substantial immortality of the self. This may be akin to Dr. Satō 佐藤 defending the rationality of Christianity by asserting that electrons are divine. Biologically, it is argued that the life of one’s descendants are an extension of the self, while in terms of social achievements, for example, Thomas Edison’s self exists in the shining light of an electric bulb. A further explanation relates that the spirit of Śākyamuni Buddha in Buddhism is immortal due to its lasting influence. However, all these explanations have strayed far from the true meaning of the immortality of the soul. In the traditional understanding, the immortality of the soul implies that after the death of a specific individual, their soul—with its unique, conscious identity—continues to exist, possibly experiencing punishment in hell or finding fulfillment in paradise.

10. The End of the Illusion of “Another World”

Now, regarding the concept of “another world,” is it truly an existing realm where spirits live after death, as generally believed? In response to this question, it is evident that modern science dismisses the existence of another world. Even from a geographical standpoint, once Copernican heliocentrism is accepted, the directions designated by terms such as “heaven,” “the Western Pure Land,” or “the realm of the dead” become utterly nonsensical. Even if the whole [human] world were to be destroyed, the earth would continue its rotation, rendering the notion of “another world” directionally meaningless. Ultimately, there is no scientific evidence to prove its existence.

How, then, should we consider the existence of realms like the “Pure Land,” “heaven,” or “Pure Land of Vulture Peak” in the afterlife? We should understand that they hold no meaning other than as the subjective belief of individuals. For example, Master Nichiren states, “Śākyamuni Buddha remains present even after entering nirvana; even after his extinction he remains alive in this sutra” (On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land).

And according to Master Shinran:

It is only through believing and relying on the words of good people that we come to trust [in the teachings of the nenbutsu]. Truly, the practice of nenbutsu is the seed for being born in the Pure Land; it may lead to that, or it may lead to falling into hell due to one’s karmic fruits. We cannot know for certain. Even if one is deceived by Master Hōnen and recites the nenbutsu and falls into hell, there should be no regrets.

According to this perspective, the Pure Land is established through belief. Its significance lies in the act of believing, and without belief, it becomes a meaningless concept. Therefore, the Pure Land, the Pure Land of Vulture Peak, and heaven should be regarded as symbolic representations of an ideal world, devoid of any inherent meaning. They should be regarded as concepts that must be obliterated.

11. The Immortality of the Soul Is Based on a Dualistic Concept of Spirit and Flesh

Next is the issue of the immortality of the soul. The belief that a soul with an individual consciousness exists even after death is no longer a problem for those who deny the afterlife. And yet some believers accept the idea that Christ was born from the Virgin Mary, was killed, and ascended to heaven in bodily form on the third day. Is it not a problem to believe that when a person dies their soul takes on some other form—like a balloon, perhaps—and escapes?

Upon consideration, the philosophical basis of the belief in the immortality of the soul originates from ancient people perceiving the body and soul as dualistic entities where the body is mortal and the soul is immortal. As long as belief in God remains, this is not an implausible concept. Faith in the actual existence of God has become a foundation for traditional religions. Feuerbach stated, “Faith in God is nothing other than faith in immortality, and conversely, faith in immortality is faith in God.” This statement holds true. Believing in the existence of a divine being, such as an imperceptible personal God or Buddha, inevitably affirms the continuation of the soul after bodily death. Additionally, the belief in the immortality of the soul should eventually eliminate any doubts regarding the existence of spiritual deities such as God or Buddha. Therefore, these two concepts are interdependent and have established what might be called heavenly transcendentalism, giving rise to the idea of the immortality of the soul. However, as discussed in the previous chapter, if Buddhism is fundamentally atheistic, these concepts are clearly negated. Therefore, the question arises: How did the concept of the immortality of the soul, which is based on the dualism of spirit and flesh, originate? It is necessary to first examine this question.

12. Spirit-Flesh Dualism in Primitive Societies

In this regard, scholars who have studied the notion that “the primitive people of Australia are the remnants of our distant ancestors” provide the following explanation:

Primitive people, due to their limited knowledge, cannot fully comprehend the concept of natural death. They do not believe that they must die sooner or later. (This is still true for infants [note by Seno’o].) However, when an unnatural death occurs, their behavior changes. Primitive people witness such unnatural deaths almost daily during hunting. In these cases, they consistently observe a similar scene. The wounded animal, struck by a spear or an axe, falls down; blood flows from the wound, and as the blood flows, the animal becomes motionless and stops breathing. In other words, it dies. From this, the following theory is derived: when blood flows out of the body, the life force that had previously animated the body, or in other words, the spirit, leaves the body.

According to the beliefs of primitive people, the soul that has departed from the body continues to exist independently as the deceased’s twin. Through this process, it becomes a spirit. This notion is confirmed through the act of dreaming. From a psychological standpoint, primitive people can be considered “naive realists.” Everything they see or inquire about is considered a tangible reality for them. (The same applies to children [note by Seno’o].) For example, when an aboriginal person in Australia sees themselves hunting or participating in a feast in their dream, they genuinely believe that their soul has engaged in those activities. They cannot explain dreaming in any other way. Primitive people perceive spirits as the twins of humans. Therefore, it is only natural that they have established customs and habits concerning spirits. In times of need, primitive people consistently seek assistance from the spirits of those kin in their community who have died. This is not at all surprising to them. They believe it is their responsibility to take care of the spirits of their deceased relatives. In certain aboriginal communities in Australia, it is a widespread custom to offer various delicacies on the graves of the deceased for several days after death. Failure to do so, according to their beliefs, may result in the spirits of the deceased causing harm or seeking revenge upon their fellow community members.

Just as in the case of the belief that mummies have souls that depart and return to their vessel—the physical body—such notions are said to originate from superstitions. This belief can be considered a simplistic interpretation by ignorant and uncivilized people, who naturally began to think of spirits and bodies in a dualistic manner. However, such a dualistic concept of spirit and body has become increasingly untenable in learned discourse. At the very least, the mind and the body are two aspects of a living organism, where subjectively the mind is considered to be mental activity, but objectively, there is no other way than to view it as a function of the body. In other words, if there were a complete duality and continued freedom after death, it would be difficult to explain why physical malfunctions hold sway over mental activity. Clearly, mental activity is an inseparable phenomenon dependent on the body. When the body dies, the mind also ceases to exist, just like a flame extinguishing when the firewood burns out. It is therefore reasonable to believe that no individual spirits or personal souls continue to exist after death.

13. Immortality of the Soul and Psychic Science

In recent times, there are people who advocate for “psychic science” and attempt to scientifically prove that spirits continue to exist and live after the death of the physical body. As long as the dualistic concept of spirit and body, as mentioned above, remains, this cannot be considered impossible. Even from a common-sense perspective, if one’s personality continues to exist after death, why is it impossible to communicate with grieving family members and friends who are dearly missed? There have been experiments conducted by mediums to establish communication with spirits, but even these experiments—which involve communication via a medium conducted when the medium is in an altered state of consciousness or a kind of hypnotic state—cannot be considered sufficiently common or scientific. Ultimately, at present, the belief in the immortality of the soul, like beliefs in the afterlife, can only be affirmed through subjective faith rather than objective evidence.

However, even if belief in the immortality of the soul is a natural inclination of human beings, it has become intertwined with various aspects of life, such as the need for reassurance and ethical considerations. While Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason denied the existence of God, in his Critique of Practical Reason he acknowledged God again as a requirement for humanity. Therefore, it is necessary to critically examine the correlated issues and questions related to these beliefs and demands of humanity.

14. It Is Unnecessary to Insist on the Immortality of the Soul

Life is filled with contradictions. The more we awaken and strive to use our reason, the more contradictions with reality we feel. The issue of life and death is a representative example, as death is generally considered to be absolute and fearsome. If the fear of death and the desire for immortality is universal, then even if the belief in the immortality of the soul is denied by logic it may persist as an element of faith based on our desires. However, death can be both a subject of fear and a path to salvation. For instance, we hear that some people in their old age long for death. We also sometimes witness elderly individuals desiring death, and there are cases where lovers, saddened by unfulfilled hopes, choose the path of death. People may willingly sacrifice themselves for the sake of family, social class, or even their nation. In such cases, they do not necessarily desire an afterlife. Considering these facts, the longing for eternal life is not absolute. Moreover, death is not always a source of fear. Even in Buddhism, there are stories about this. In the ancient country of Bhīmā, a fox once proclaimed, “Some humans enjoy life and detest death, while others enjoy death and detest life,” and this declaration earned the fox recognition as a teacher by the god Indra. Reflecting on a life without “death” in a tranquil manner, one can understand why “death” itself may be seen as the ultimate salvation in Buddhism, where nirvana is interpreted as synonymous with death.

In what situations can death be considered relatively calmly, and in what situations is it mourned most deeply? And why does the desire for eternal life arise so strongly? This issue can be observed in the fact that the death of an elderly person, seen as a natural end to a full life, is accompanied by fewer tears compared to the death of a young person. Even among young individuals, a peaceful death that follows medical treatment is more readily accepted, while a sudden and tragic death continues to be mourned. This suggests that the question revolves around whether the death is natural or unnatural. Attaining a natural death has a significant impact on alleviating the fear and grief associated with death. With the spread of correct concepts of hygiene and an improvement in basic living conditions such as clothing, food, and housing, we will see fewer unnatural deaths and a greater societal experience of natural old age, which would in turn increase awareness and understanding of the inevitability of the cycle of life and death. As ripe fruit naturally falls to the ground, death will be seen as a natural part of life, and the veil of fear and sorrow surrounding it will gradually be lifted. According to Dr. Futaki 二木, the agony of an unnatural death caused by illness results from the sacrifice of healthy organs to compensate for the dysfunction of a single organ. On the other hand, a natural death is likened to the collapse of an old tree, where there is no pain for the individual. However, if one continues to live a life of unnatural hardship day and night, without experiencing the true pleasures of a human existence and ultimately perishes without enjoying a fulfilling life, it is only natural that dissatisfaction and regrets about life intensify, thereby heightening the fear of death and giving rise to a strong desire for eternal life.

Indeed, “freedom is the conscious recognition of necessity.” True peace of mind should be established upon such necessary truths. It is good for traditional religious leaders to point to death and prompt reflection on the impermanence of life, as well as preach a sense of comfort to be found in accepting death. However, for people in modern society, it is no longer necessary to insist on the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. The better path of guidance and salvation for modern people may lie in a clear recognition of the inevitability of death, while simultaneously making efforts to improve living conditions and working toward the transformation of the capitalist economic system. This would be to ensure greater life satisfaction for the masses and their attainment of natural death. Should we not also recognize that it is in such efforts that human self-awareness truly exists? In doing so, could we not replace “the paradise of heaven beyond our graves with the paradise of the earthly realm beyond our graves—namely the historical future and the future of humanity?”

15. Belief in the Soul’s Immortality Does Not Promote Effort

Then there are those who insist on the immortality of the soul from an ethical point of view. They accept present misfortunes and blessings as the karmic consequences of past lives, and they seek to encourage effort in this life by anticipating the rewards and punishments of future lives through the belief in the immortality of the soul and the law of cause and effect across three existences [i.e., past, present, and future]. However, while such views may have been accepted during the uncritical feudal and individualistic capitalist societies of the past, in today’s world where it is evident that numerous problems are influenced by social relations and where modern individuals have lost interest and faith in the immortality of the soul due to scientific advancements, such demands have become irrelevant. In other words, modern individuals consider life in terms of shared responsibility and seek practical solutions through societal means. They no longer find satisfaction in the concept of rewards and punishments based on the law of cause and effect across three existences. Established religious leaders worry that if they stop preaching about future rewards, people will become selfish. But look at how many skilled orators and egotists exist among those religious leaders and their followers. On the other hand, it is ironic to see how many devoted and loving activists exist in socialist movements, which these activists consider to be godless and materialistic. What a paradoxical contrast it is! Modern self-centeredness does not stem from a lack of consideration for the immortality of the soul, but is primarily a mass product of the capitalist economic system itself.

Thus, even the doctrines of the afterlife and materialism, when thoroughly reexamined, not only present no obstacles but can contribute significantly to the movement for the realization of a new society that liberates the masses.

16. Original Buddhism Accepted Neither the Afterlife Nor an Immortal Soul

So, what kind of view did our Buddhism originally offer on this issue? Did established Buddhist organizations originally preach concepts such as an afterlife or the immortality of the soul? Once again, the answer is “No.”

Śākyamuni Buddha’s teachings often addressed the specific circumstances of the individuals he was speaking to. There were occasions when he discussed the issue of the afterlife to provide comfort in the face of present suffering. However, the fundamental purpose of his teachings was liberation from suffering in actual life, and he did not specifically advocate belief in an afterlife or in the immortality of the soul. This can be seen in his response to the questioning of his disciple Mālukyaputta regarding the existence of the afterlife and the destruction or nondestruction of the “soul.”

The world is finite, and yet it is infinite. Whether one believes in existence after death or denies it, neither view enables a purer practice. Birth, aging, sickness, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress equally confront us. Therefore, I preach the Dharma to eliminate them in the present moment. (A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, p. 403)

Thus, liberation is attained by viewing life in a certain way. The Buddha explained this to a Brahmin called Seniya as follows:

O Seniya! There are three types of teachers in the world. First, there are those who recognize the self in the present life but deny it in the afterlife. These people negate the afterlife, and their view is called annihilationism. Second, there are those who recognize the self both in the present life and in the afterlife. They preach the eternal existence of both the present and future lives, and their view is called eternalism. Last, there are those who neither recognize the self in the present life nor in the afterlife. This middle way is the teaching of the Tathāgata (Buddha). The Tathāgata teaches the concept of no-self and diligently seeks to extinguish the delusions of the present life, aiming for nirvana. (Saṃyukta Āgama)

According to the early Buddhist scriptures, Buddhism does not recognize the existence of a self even in this present life. Therefore, clearly the Buddha did not consider the postmortem survival of a personal individual soul, and consequently, the concept of an afterlife, or higan, is also absent. This is commonly known as “selflessness” or “emptiness”—and it refers to the concept that all existence is a process formed by various conditions coming together in harmony. It is further reflected in the teaching of impermanence and the no-self nature of all phenomena, as expressed in the famous phrase “all conditioned things are impermanent; all phenomena are without self.”

This can be considered a dialectical perspective. Although Buddhism later developed various teachings related to the afterlife and the immortality of the soul as peripheral doctrines, the fundamental understanding of Buddhism remained rooted in the concepts of no-self and interdependent co-arising.

For example, in the Sutra of Complete Enlightenment we find the following explanation:

This body, ultimately, has no essence; it is like a transformation arising from the coming together of elements, similar to an illusion. The four elements temporarily combine, leading to the delusion of the six senses. The six senses, in conjunction with the four elements, create the illusion of interdependent co-arising. Within this [process], there appears an accumulation of relational aspects. If we were to name it, we might call it “self.” Good men, if this deluded mind were without the six dusts [sense objects], it could not exist at all. When the four elements disintegrate, there is nothing to which the dust can adhere. If within this, the conditioned dusts return to their dispersion, ultimately, there would be nothing for the dependent mind to perceive.

In summary, according to this passage, the human body does not have a fixed essence or a concept of a separate entity like a soul. It is the aggregation of various conditions(four aggregates) that allows for the functioning of sensations, and from there, the arising of what can be called the mind. However, the mind is meaningless without stimulation from the external world (six sense objects), and if the physical body (four elements) were to disperse, there would be nothing remaining, and the mind would cease to exist. This perspective contradicts idealistic views and leans more toward materialistic interpretations. Buddhism, in its original teachings, does not preach the continuation of a soul after the death and physical dissolution of the body.

Why then did the notions of no-self and no-soul, as taught by fundamental Buddhism, transform into beliefs like the immortality of the soul and the concept of the afterlife as seen today? This can be attributed to several factors:

1. The tolerant and adaptable approach to preaching taken by Śākyamuni Buddha in his efforts to educate the masses.
2. The method of consolidating the teachings after the passing of Śākyamuni Buddha.
3. Influences from the general social context.

Śākyamuni Buddha’s primary goal was to teach about liberation in actual life and the practices to achieve this, as seen in his response to the disciple Mālukyaputta. Therefore, he approached metaphysical questions quite flexibly and freely. For example, when dealing with seekers who couldn’t completely abandon the Brahmanical concept of the existence of Brahma, Śākyamuni Buddha didn’t outright deny it but rather used it as a skillful means to encourage ethical living. He taught that Brahma is a god without greed or hatred, whose followers should also strive to live without greed or hatred. Similarly, when encountering individuals who advocated for the transmigration of the soul, he taught the law of karmic cause and effect, admonishing them to engage in virtuous conduct and avoid harmful actions.

After the passing of Śākyamuni Buddha, these skillful and tolerant teachings were recorded by the conservative disciples known as the Theravāda school, who were steadfast in preserving the original teachings. Initially, these teachings were likely recognized as skillful means rather than absolute truths. However, as time passed and successive generations of disciples emerged, the historical context of the teachings was gradually forgotten, and they became fixed in their recorded form. Furthermore, after Śākyamuni Buddha’s passing, there was a growing reactionary movement among the Brahmins who sought to reestablish the belief in divine beings. In response to this movement and the need for mass education that desired eternal life based on unscientific notions, the fundamental teachings of Buddhism were gradually interpreted in a socially dialectical manner. This led to the development of a concept that transformed Śākyamuni Buddha into a deity and the emergence of the notion of “nirvana” as a postmortem pure land, or what is commonly referred to as the afterlife.

The emancipation of thought is not necessarily achieved through the liberation of everyday life through social change. The fundamental truth of Buddhism, which emphasizes the absence of gods and souls, has been distorted in various ways. Such distortions were inevitable within the given social circumstances. In a society without freedom, ideas are always manipulated to serve the interests of the ruling class. In Japan, for example, the concepts of the afterlife and the law of karma were embraced as convenient ideologies by the ruling class, deviating significantly from the original teachings of Buddhism. The idea of the immortality of the soul has developed in a way that is entirely unlike the original teachings of Buddhism. However, now the age of capitalist society marked by class conflict is coming to an end, and the emergence of a higher, scientifically based society characterized by personal equality is approaching!

Thus, the non-theistic and non-soul ideas of original Buddhism are set to be revived alongside the emerging social class, and the day will come when the old Buddhist teachings will be reexamined and cleared away.

Chapter 4: Modern People Are not Satisfied with Illusory Happiness; They Want to Fully Enjoy Real Happiness in Their Everyday Lives

17. The Powerlessness of Idealistic Spirituality

The third issue is that modern people do not desire the spiritualism or ecstatic states that traditional religious figures have preached but rather a comprehensive happiness that encompasses all aspects of life. What, then, is the most fundamental demand that truly reflects the nature of human beings? And how should Buddhists approach this issue?

This has already been addressed in our first two critiques, where the heavenly “beyond” refers to an ideal society on earth. Therefore, there is no such thing as a spiritual life detached from material existence; concepts like “God” or “spirit” are mere illusions that project earthly life into a heavenly image. Consequently, faith based solely on the reliance on external power is meaningless. If we understand that we must secure happiness on earth through our own efforts, then mere spiritualism can no longer be accepted. However, despite this, the majority of current religious figures resemble brave Don Quixotes, intoxicated by so-called spiritualism, consciously or unconsciously confining the masses to dark chambers of illusory happiness. They incessantly proclaim the cultivation of national spirit, practicality and strength, moral guidance of thought, and total mobilization of education, among other things.

Regarding this matter, at the Japanese Religions Conference held in Tokyo from June 5–8, 1928, the Minister of Education at the time, Shōda Kazue 勝田主計, delivered a congratulatory message to the one thousand two hundred religious representatives gathered from across the country, including notable figures from Buddhism, Christianity, and Shinto. His words can be said to represent the intentions of contemporary religious practitioners:

How should we overcome the social unrest that plagues the modern world? It can be said that it is complex and intertwined with numerous factors. However, if we trace it back to its origins and delve deep into its causes, we find that it is fundamentally rooted in materialism. Therefore, while various social measures may serve as symptomatic treatments, as a fundamental solution we must first strive to overcome the dominance of materialism. However, the overcoming of materialism should be pursued through an elevation of spiritual values. When people live with pure beliefs and are filled with warm compassion, the struggles over interests will cease, class conflict will gradually disappear, and a society once marked by anxiety will transform into a world of enlightenment. Nonetheless, the elevation of spiritual values ultimately relies on the power of religion. . . . Upon this occasion of the Japanese Religions Conference, I express my sincere hopes and earnestly enjoin your collective efforts.

Clearly their intention is to elevate spiritual values, and they believe that the ultimate mission of religion is to “overcome materialism.” They view it as their task to construct an ideal society through this type of religious movement.

However, despite their best efforts, society is increasingly plagued by insecurity. Tenant farmer disputes, labor conflicts, and school disturbances not only continue to increase in number but are also becoming increasingly virulent. Moreover, the decadence of movements like “erotic, grotesque, nonsense” continues to prevail unchecked throughout urban and rural areas. In response, so-called religious movements have proven completely ineffective in addressing these issues, exposing their ineptitude. The question arises: Why is this the case? Can we truly consider such a spiritualistic approach to be the essence of Buddhism? Should it even be considered as such? Let us examine this matter by dividing it into the following four aspects:

1. The teachings of the Buddha and the patriarchs.
2. The rise and fall of religious organizations and their relationship to society.
3. The state of Buddhist organizations in the modern era.
4. The true nature of spiritualism.

18. The Teachings of the Buddha and the Patriarchs

a. The Buddha’s Teachings on Economics

When the Buddha attained enlightenment and began preaching, his first sermon was delivered to five religious seekers in Deer Park. The doctrine he preached was as follows:

O seekers! In this world there are two extreme ways of living. One is the path of excessive desire for wealth and bodily pleasures, which ultimately leads to suffering. The other is the path of neglecting material existence and seeking only spiritual stability, which results in being trapped in worldly worries. I have escaped from these extremes and discovered the middle way. It is the path of balancing material well-being with the improvement of spiritual life, leading to infinite happiness. (A New Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, p. 27)

The middle way entails [the teaching of] “no-self,” as mentioned above in the response to the question posed by the disciple Mālukyaputta. The practice of no-self specifically involves the practice of the Ennobling Eightfold Path, which consists of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. In essence, it means perceiving life as it is, recognizing delusions clearly, and living in accordance with the correct way of life. Delusions arise from the concepts of “self” and “desire.” Therefore, awakening entails recognizing “interdependent co-arising” and “non-self,” and engaging in mutual support and coexistence in social life. The ideal of the monastic community (sangha) embodies this principle. However, from the perspective of the middle way, the current form of conceptual spiritualism is clearly a distorted form of Buddhism. The Buddha did not ignore material existence; he insisted that the economy, which is the foundation of social life, cannot be at all neglected.

For example, in the Upāsaka Precepts Sutra, it is written: “After first learning worldly matters in accordance with the Dharma and being well-versed in them, one should then seek wealth in accordance with the Dharma.” As for the method of handling acquired wealth: “If one acquires wealth, one should divide it into four parts: one part should be offered to one’s parents, oneself, one’s spouse, and one’s dependents; two parts should be invested and used in business in accordance with the Dharma; and the remaining part should be saved for future needs.”

As for the teachings on the method of preserving this wealth: “Good man, do not donate your possessions to four types of individuals: the elderly, those who live far away, evildoers, and the powerful.” “Donate” here refers to entrusting or depositing money. This fourfold calculation is also mentioned in the Sigālovāda Sutra and the Saṃyukta Āgama.

The Sigālovāda Sutra enumerates six causes of reckless spending, cautioning against excessive drinking, indulging in nightlife, indulging in entertainment and amusements, engaging in gambling, associating with bad companions, and succumbing to laziness. Furthermore, the Buddha emphasizes other causes of wealth depletion including calamities caused by the king (representing present-day exploitation), bandits, water disasters, fire disasters, natural wear and tear, low interest rates, failure to repay debts, destruction by enemies, and the reckless spending of wayward children.

On one occasion, a young boy named Bhaddiya approached the Buddha seeking a method to live comfortably. In response, the Buddha taught him the following “four foundations of success”:

1. Skillfulness in one’s occupation: this refers to being proficient in one’s chosen profession.
2. Competence in wealth management: this entails effectively managing and safeguarding one’s wealth.
3. Associating with good friends who possess joyful knowledge: this involves associating with virtuous companions who lead a righteous life.
4. Practicing moderation in expenditure and avoiding both extravagance and stinginess: this means living within one’s means and not falling into wastefulness or miserliness.

These teachings provide guidance on how to live a comfortable and balanced life.

Indeed, when we examine these teachings, it becomes evident that Buddhism is not merely a form of spiritual idealism. The essence of Buddhist faith lies rather in the diligent pursuit of a disciplined and rational way of practical living. It promotes the practice of a genuine middle path that differs from the formal austerities and speculative contemplation found in Brahmanism and other religious practices.

b. Teachings of the Sect Founders on Practical Life

After the passing of the Buddha, Buddhism gradually became more speculative and conceptual. However, the successive revolutionary movements that eventually arose always contained aspects of the fundamental spirit of the Buddha, adapted to the needs of their respective times.

In the fifth year of Tenchō 天長 (828), during the reign of Emperor Junna 淳和 (ca. 786–840), Kōbō Daishi 弘法大師 established a private university called Shugei Shuchiin 綜芸種智院 in Kyoto. It became famous for opening the path of learning to children of humble backgrounds. At that time, Kyoto had one national university and five other private schools, but none of them served as educational institutions for the masses; they were primarily educational establishments for the nobility. In his inaugural address, Kōbō Daishi expressed the following sentiment: “Currently, in this splendid city, there exists only one university, and there is no place for common schools. Thus there is no opportunity for children of humble backgrounds to seek knowledge.” (The phrase “no opportunity to seek knowledge” implies not knowing which direction to pursue [note by Seno’o].) In the same inaugural address, we find the following demand: “The expression ‘a person cannot live on an empty gourd’ is attributed to Confucius. The saying ‘All beings depend on food and shelter’ is a teaching attributed to Śākyamuni Buddha. Therefore, if one desires to propagate the path [of the Buddha], it is essential to provide food to people without fail.”

If one is a gourd hanging on a tree for a year or one hundred years, bread is of no use. However, all humans, as living beings, rely on clothing, food, and shelter. Therefore, if you seek to guide people with good thoughts, first provide them with an ample supply of bread. Kōbō Daishi was truly an outstanding social activist of his time.

While Buddhism faced difficulties during the periods of Kōbō and Dengyō 伝教, it was Hōnen and Shinran who broke through the challenges and transformed the face of Buddhism. It is said that Hōnen instructed his students to scatter his own cremated ashes in the Kamo 鴨川 River, but particularly noteworthy is Shinran’s embrace of married life and consumption of meat, which boldly liberated Buddhism from empty spiritualism. The nenbutsu faith they advocated, with its focus on “relinquishing impure lands and aspiring for the Pure Land,” may appear to negate reality at first glance. However, depending on how one views it, it can be seen as a religious revolution that, in stark contrast to the self-power teachings of Zen, affirmed the authentic and unadorned reality of everyday life.

When it comes to Nichiren, later followers carry him around as if he were the great champion of spiritualism. However, the same can be said about the Master [i.e., Nichiren]. Regarding his lifelong assertion found in On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land, he later revealed the motive for his writings, stating: “Those who would govern the country must understand the principles of governance.” Social scientists assert that politics is an intensive expression of economic power. The intended purpose of On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land, recommended to the Hōjō 北条 clan as a guiding principle for politics, is clearly aimed at alleviating the poverty-stricken masses of that time. Let’s examine the beginning of this work:

Once there was a traveler who spoke these words in sorrow to his host: “In recent years, there have been unusual disturbances in the heavens, strange occurrences on earth, and famine and pestilence, all affecting every corner of the empire and spreading throughout the land. Oxen and horses lie dead in the streets, and the bones of the stricken crowd the highways. Over half the population has already been carried off by death, and there is hardly a single person who does not grieve.”

Thus, the Master completely rejected the illusory, individualistic, speculative, unplanned, and apolitical social movements of the eight and ten schools of the period, which were both mutually opposed and self-promoting. His intention was to establish an ordered and politically oriented Buddhist revolution. This is evident in the sharp focus of the movement, which was always directed toward converting the ruling classes while regarding the devotion of the common people as secondary. And as a method for prohibiting the various sects, it is written that [Buddhists] should “cease giving alms to wicked priests and instead all come over to the side of the good,” among other things. We can interpret this assertion as a call for economic sanctions, which aligns well with the earlier statement of Kōbō Daishi, who emphasized the importance of providing bread (sustenance) to individuals. In any case, it serves as strong evidence that any ideological movement that ignores the importance of basic sustenance is ultimately powerless.

I have presented a few representative examples but the essence of each sect founder’s Buddhism, despite their differing forms, was always a pure expression of compassionate love that responded to the suffering of the masses. Throughout history, the common people have always lived in deprived conditions. How could social activists who seek to alleviate their suffering be satisfied with empty preaching alone? Only when they are not, will the numerous oppressions imposed by the ruling class become instead revered scars of honor for the masses, serving as sources of lasting gratitude and aspiration.

It is true that each sect [of Buddhism] possesses a considerable amount of idealistic and spiritualistic literature. However, it will suffice to explain here that the attitudes of the founders and early leaders of these sects were not limited to the abstract beliefs or empty spiritualism that current practitioners of each sect hold.

19. The Rise and Fall of Religious Organizations and Their Relationship to Society

a. The Rise and Fall [of Buddhism] in India and China

The next topic is a social analysis of the development of religious organizations. As we delve into this historical examination, we will undoubtedly witness the definitive defeat of so-called abstract faith and spiritualism, leaving no room for debate.

First, it is a fact that during the time of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic community thrived in direct proportion to the involvement of kings, wealthy individuals, and their power and economic resources. In the third year after the Buddha began his preaching, King Bimbisāra of Magadha embraced Buddhism and donated the Veluvana Bamboo Grove Monastery. With this, the influence of Buddhism rapidly expanded, spreading throughout the entire kingdom of Magadha, with the city of Rājagṛha as its center. It was during this time that Śāriputra, Maudgalyāyana, and hundreds of disciples entered the monastic order under the leadership of the Buddha. Prior to this, there were only around fifty or sixty disciples, but now their numbers swiftly grew to one thousand two hundred and fifty. Furthermore, there is the famous case of Anāthapiṇḍika, a wealthy merchant from Kosala who became a devotee and established the renowned Jetavana Monastery in the city of Savatthi. This grand construction consisted of sixteen large buildings, each with sixty chambers, accommodating more than a thousand Buddhist disciples. The magnificence of this monumental architecture, funded by immense wealth, initially moved the heart of Prince Jeta, who offered the land for the monastery. Subsequently, his father, King Prasenajit, also became a Buddhist believer. It goes without saying that the conversion of kings and influential individuals played a crucial role in gaining the support of the masses throughout the country.

Next, looking at the history of Buddhism after the passing of the Buddha, it can be observed that its golden age was ushered in during the reigns of Emperor Aśoka (ca. 300–232 BCE; r. ca. 269–232 BCE) and King Kaniṣka (r. 127–150). In the case of Emperor Aśoka, Buddhism started to decline around forty years after his death due to the persecution by the anti-Buddhist minister Pushyamitra, resulting in a revival of Brahmanism. Similarly, after the passing of King Kaniṣka, the fate of Buddhism was not as glorious. In China, Buddhism took root through the introduction and translation of scriptures by eminent figures such as Xuanzang 玄奘 (602–664) and Kumārajīva (Ch. Jiumoluoshi 鳩摩羅什; 344–414). However, it is undeniable that this significant undertaking also had the support of influential kings.

b. The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Buddhist Sects

This relationship [with power and wealth] was also true for Japanese Buddhism. Let’s briefly discuss the development of Buddhism in Japan. It is commonly believed that Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the sixth century, in the fourteenth year of the reign of Emperor Kinmei 欽明 [552], when Buddhist statues and scriptures were sent from the kingdom of Baekje 百濟 by King Seong 聖 [ca. 504–554; r. 523–554]. However, it is well-known that Buddhism was already nurtured by the powerful Soga clan during this early period. Regarding the sects of Japanese Buddhism, the Sanron 三論 sect was established by the [Goguryeo 高句麗] monk Hyegwan 慧灌 [Jp. Ekan; fl. 7th c.] in the second year of the Taika era [646] at the imperial court under Emperor Kōtoku 孝徳 [596–654; r. 645–654]. Then, the Hossō 法相 and Kusha 倶舎 sects were propagated by Dōshō 道昭 [629–700], and the Jōjitsu 成実 sect was established by Dōzō 道蔵 [fl. late 7th c.]. During the reign of Emperor Genmei 元明 [r. 707–715], Nara became the capital and the Kegon 華厳 sect was promoted by [the Korean monk] Simsang 審祥 [Jp. Shinjō; ?–742], while the Ritsu 律 sect was introduced by [the Chinese monk] Jianzhen 鑑真 [Jp. Ganjin (688–763)]. These six sects, known as the “six Buddhist schools of Nara,” gained popularity. However, it should be noted that all of these sects were nurtured solely by successive emperors or the nobility.

The flourishing of Heian 平安 period [794–1185] Buddhism can be attributed to the Tendai 天台 sect, centered around Mount Hiei 比叡, and the Shingon sect, centered around Mount Kōya, both of which were greatly supported by the patronage and protection of emperors Kammu 桓武 [r. 781–806] and Heijō 平城 [r. 749–758]. Thus, each of these religious organizations owned the vast temple lands (or temple fields) that were bestowed upon them, and the temples themselves expanded their territories further through acquisition and cultivation. As their economic power grew, they extended their religious networks in all directions. Regarding this matter, Hosokawa Kame’ichi 細川亀市 writes in the preface of his work, An Economic History of Japanese Temple Buddhism:

The temples, which clothed themselves in the guise of religion, stood firmly on a solid material foundation, possessing vast fields and facing the world. They wielded exclusive administrative and policing powers, exercising absolute control over the people without fear of anyone. This is nothing short of a remarkable spectacle in our social and economic history.

Indeed, the temples, as feudal lords, obtained such a position primarily through the temple estates, which were the very source of their activities.

Let’s examine a few examples to illustrate this point.

(i) Donations

In the fourteenth year of Enryaku 延暦 [795], Emperor Kammu donated one hundred cho 町 [a unit of measurement for agricultural land] of paddy fields in Ōmi 近江 to the temple of Bonshakuji 梵釈寺. Emperor Seiwa 清和 [850–881] made a donation in the sixth year of Jōgan 貞観 [864], contributing one hundred sixty-four cho of land in the Nagakami 長上 District of Tōtōmi 遠江 Province to Jōganji 貞観寺 temple. Emperor Shōmu 聖武 [701–756] made a significant donation in the first year of Tempyō 天平 [729]. He granted five thousand households and ten thousand cho of paddy fields to Tōdaiji 東大寺 temple.

(ii) Land Acquisition and Cultivation

Tōdaiji temple, in the third year of the Tenpyō-shōhō 天平勝宝 period [751], acquired four tan 反 [a unit of land measurement] and one hundred forty bu 歩 [a subunit of land measurement] of cultivated land in Takushoku 拓殖 Village, Ahai 阿拝 District, Iga 伊賀 Province. In the second year of Tenpyō-hōji 天平寶字 [758], they also purchased ten chōbu 町歩 [a unit of land measurement] of newly cultivated land in the same area for nine kanmon 貫文 [a unit of currency]. In the first year of Tenpyō-shōhō [749], Gangōji 元興寺 temple acquired seven dan 段 [a unit of area] of rice paddies in Kanda 神田 for eight kan 貫 [a unit of currency]. And in the first year of Tenpyō-shōhō, Kōfukuji 弘福寺 temple purchased twenty-one chōbu of cultivated land in Ōmi 近江 Province for two hundred and thirty kan.

Furthermore, another thought-provoking matter is that temples received donations of servants and engaged in money lending at high interest rates. Here are some examples:

1. Empress Kōken 孝謙 [718–770], in the first year of Tenpyō-hōji [757], donated two hundred government-owned slaves to Konkōmyōji 金光明寺. In the same year, the court noble Ōyake no Kasemaro 大宅可是麻呂 donated sixty-one slaves to Tōdaiji on two separate occasions. In the second year of the Tenpyō-jingo 天平神護 era [766], two hundred slaves, which he had purchased from the five provinces of Mino 美濃, Ōmi, Tango 丹後, Tajima 但馬, and Kawachi 河内 were sent to Tōdaiji.
2. On the twenty-second day of the third year of Chōroku 長禄 [1459], a passage from the promissory note taken by Muryōjuin 無量寿院 states, “The interest rate is to add forty mon 文 per month to the principal. Next autumn, it should be returned as part of the annual tribute from the southern provinces along with the principal.”

With an interest rate of forty mon per month for every one kan of borrowed money, this is an exorbitant interest rate of 48 percent. Furthermore, it is stated that if the principal and interest are not repaid, the borrower’s fields will be confiscated. Even the awe-inspiring Great Buddha of Nara and the magnificent architecture of Hōryūji 法隆寺 were products of immense economic power derived from squeezing the impoverished farmers and their boundless labor. It is evident that the society of the Heian period developed into a feudal society ruled by the warrior class as the estates flourished.

The primary characteristic of feudal society was that each lord privately owned land and peasants. In its early stages, temples also occupied vast tracts of lands and [owned large numbers of] peasants, making them virtual rulers in the secular realm and powerful landowners. However, the wheels of history spare no prosperity from eventually declining and perishing. Even the flourishing Heian Buddhism gradually had to yield its religious authority to the emerging sects of the Kamakura period, such as Jōdo 浄土, Zen, and Nichiren. What was the reason for this shift?

One reason for the shift from Heian Buddhism to Kamakura Buddhism can be attributed to the contrast in their approaches. Traditional Buddhism in the Heian period often relied on mystical formalism and intricate speculative philosophy, while Kamakura Buddhism adopted a more straightforward and accessible approach that resonated with the contemporary needs of the people. However, an even more significant reason lies in the evident movement of economic and social relations. According to historians, the protectors dispatched by the Kamakura shogunate—who later became the warlords of the Sengoku 戦国 period—unjustly exercised their power, usurping the estates and, as a result, temples gradually lost their economic strength as their lands were taken away. Another major reason was a backlash against the oppressive tribute imposed by the imperial temples acting as local landlords. One example of this occurred in the fifth year of the Eikyō 永享 era [1434], when the inhabitants of Mount Kōya petitioned for a reduction in their tribute due to famine. In response, the temple ordered, “Pay as you have always done.” To which the peasants replied:

Since we have been instructed to pay as we have always done, we will submit two koku 斗 and six shō 升 of rice, one koku, eight shō, and five gō 合 of miscellaneous grains, and one kanmon for public taxes. Apart from this, we make no claims to even a single portion of land from any ulterior motives.

There are numerous examples like this where the circumstances led to the decline of the Buddhist institutions associated with the imperial court while Kamakura Buddhism gained popularity among the masses, received support from the feudal lords, and gradually expanded. During the tumultuous Sengoku period, when intense conflicts prevailed, Buddhist sects were also engaged in sectarian disputes. However, as the Tokugawa 徳川 shogunate entered a period of unification, the internal conflicts subsided, especially during the reign of the third shogun, Iemitsu 家光 [1604–1651], when a registry policy was implemented to suppress Christianity. In response to this policy, Buddhist [priests] gradually became civil servants of the Tokugawa government serving in the capacity of official religious practitioners. For over two hundred years, the Buddhist sects continued to indulge in decadent dreams. However, the great upheaval of loyalty to the emperor and the movement to overthrow the shogunate also manifested as a wave of anti-Buddhist sentiment. As a result, Japanese Buddhism lay in ruins before the Meiji reforms. Subsequently, under the influence of the Meiji government’s emphasis on nationalism and modernization, Japanese Buddhism experienced a revival and played an active role. However, with the recent upheaval in the social hierarchy, the Buddhist movements of the Meiji and Taishō eras are once again being pushed toward a period of reassessment as is evident in the current circumstances.

I have attempted to explore the rise and fall of Buddhist sects over a span of two thousand five hundred years, but what does this tell us? As Education Minister Shōda suggested [above], was it truly possible to “overcome materialism” through the intensification of spiritualism? No, the facts seem to have shown precisely that the opposite is the case.

20. The State of Buddhist Organizations in the Modern Era

When we delve into the inner workings of contemporary Buddhist organizations, the nature of this problem becomes even clearer. What enables the so-called spiritual movements, such as the renowned Higashi and Nishi Honganji temples, the Nichiren, Shingon, and Zen sects, as well as various training associations and aspirational societies? Is it the power of spirituality itself? Absolutely not! The situation becomes evident when we recall the case of the [Higashi] Honganji temple’s high priest, Kubutsu 句仏, who was even deprived of his clerical status due to financial issues. In the past, he expressed his sentiments through the Tokyo nichinichi shinbun 東京日々新聞, revealing the truth. He states, “The sect’s finances require one million yen, with voluntary donations amounting to three hundred thousand yen. As a result, forced fundraising and taxation occur, leading to a degradation of the monks’ activities to that of tax collectors. The believers, too, alter their attitudes as if scheming to evade taxes. I attempted to secure our financial foundation through investment projects to promote our religious influence, but I failed miserably. However, no matter what persecution we face, I will never cease these profit-making ventures for this purpose.” This is a blatant confession that while spiritual pursuits cannot generate money, money can indeed be used to promote religious influence. In recent years, substantial fundraising, amounting to hundreds of thousands of yen, was carried out for the celebration of the Dharma succession of the head priest of Nishi Honganji, and tens of thousands of yen were raised for the memorial service of the six hundred fiftieth anniversary of Master Nichiren’s passing. Without such fundraising, neither celebration nor memorial could have come to fruition. Yet, how much of that immense wealth has truly shone as a spiritual light for the people? Indeed! Contemporary religious figures are nothing more than mammon cloaked in the guise of spiritualism. They are quintessential examples of materialism having completely overcome spiritualism. That’s why the children in both the cities and countryside sing:

The priests at the temple are sermon thieves,
When someone dies, they demand money,
When there’s a memorial service, they demand money,
If their roof is damaged, they demand money,
On top of that, they spend their days playing go 碁,
Drinking saké in their spacious halls.
These are the guys that need the sermon!
Quick! Truss them up and take them away.

Perhaps there is no need to expose much more about the current life of religious organizations because it is a glaringly obvious fact that everyone can see. However, religious leaders are not ethereal beings but humans with stomachs to feed. It is only natural that people cannot persevere without bread or economic stability. Therefore, the focus of criticism should not be on their keen interest in economic life. Rather, it should be directed at the utter lack of understanding that leads them to impose so-called spiritualism on the impoverished masses, expecting nothing but obedience. This attitude exemplifies their abject compliance as religious officials.

21. The True Nature of Spiritualism

As seen in the above description, it is evident that rather than overcoming materialistic life, spiritualism has been influenced and dominated by materialistic life and the power of ruling classes. Now, let’s delve a bit deeper and expose the true nature of sham spiritualism.

When advocates of spiritualism proclaim that “the overcoming of materialism is achieved through the intensification of spiritualism,” they must acknowledge the autonomy of ideas and thoughts within the realm of spirituality. However, we have learned through disciplines such as astronomy and geology about the process of the earth’s formation, through biology about the origins of life, and particularly through Darwin’s theory of evolution about the path of human evolution. As a result, we understand that nature and humans were not created by a god, but rather nature is itself a process of change and development, and humans are animals that emerged and evolved within nature. Therefore, we should not consider our knowledge as fixed and unchanging, but rather must explore how knowledge arises from ignorance and how imperfect and inaccurate knowledge can become more complete and accurate.

In this regard, let us consider a passage from Engels’s Anti-Dühring:

From whence does thought derive its principles? From within itself? No, thought can only extract and derive the forms of existence from the external world. Principles are not the starting point of research; rather, they are the ultimate result. They are not applied to nature and human history, but rather abstracted from them. The world of nature and humanity do not conform to principles; principles are only correct to the extent that they coincide with nature and history. This is the proper materialistic view of things, while Mr. Dühring’s opposing view is idealistic, completely overturning things and constructing the real world from ideas.

This response seems to be correct in this context. [Giordano] Bruno [1548–1600], believing in the heliocentric theory, was brutally executed by Christians but in the end, “the earth does indeed revolve [around the sun].” It was not the idea of the earth being round that made the earth round; rather, it was the fact that the earth is round that determined the idea.

Of course, there is room for criticism and opposition to viewing thought solely within the framework of a hastily adopted materialistic theory. However, it is certain that thought is not completely independent. The Buddha taught: “By consciousness, there is mentality-materiality; by consciousness as condition, there is mentality-materiality.” He also taught: “By mentality-materiality, there is consciousness; by mentality-materiality as condition, there is consciousness”; and, “By the cessation of mentality-materiality, there is the cessation of consciousness, and by the cessation of consciousness, there is the cessation of mentality-materiality.” Consciousness refers to the mind, while mentality-materiality refers to living beings with physical bodies. If we elevate consciousness to the level of human beings and consider mentality-materiality as nature, both are inseparable from the environment. Thus, there can be no disregard for the influence of the environment or the body on mental activities. The Lotus Sutra says, “The Dharma is without characteristics, and the seeds of buddhahood arise from conditions.” According to the Buddhist philosophy of “the inseparability of matter and mind” and “the unity of the material and the spiritual,” the more one understands life practically without separating matter and mind, the more one realizes that what is called “spirit” is merely a subjective grasp of the concrete forms of life. Therefore, one cannot help but acknowledge the significance of the conditions.

Let us take a practical example to further illustrate this point. There is a proverb that says, “The one who raises you is more important than the one who gave birth to you.” From the spiritual perspective, one might argue that the one who gave birth to you should be more appreciated. However, no matter how much we proclaim the importance of the one who gave birth, the concrete fact of being raised by a nanny or caretaker cannot be disregarded in terms of its significance as a nurturer. Similarly, the proverb “The parent-child relationship lasts a lifetime, the husband-wife relationship lasts two lifetimes, the master-servant relationship lasts three lifetimes” expresses the same idea. Even filial piety, which has been considered the foundation of a hundred virtues, does not explain why a light relationship of one lifetime is considered less significant than a heavy relationship of three lifetimes. It is precisely because the master-servant relationship provided a comfortable livelihood for the family. For humans who are born from nature, nature is primary. If we consider our thoughts and minds in the context of daily life, it is natural to acknowledge the fundamental economic relationships that underpin our lives. Disregarding or underestimating the economic aspect of life while focusing solely on spiritual matters is the inherent weakness of ineffective idealism. We do not “construct the real world from thoughts.” Rather, thoughts arise from the entirety of real-life relationships, and it is through practical application that thoughts further develop and evolve.

If we consider the essence of bushidō 武士道, which is often touted as the epitome of spiritualism, this issue becomes even clearer. There is a saying, “A samurai can go without eating, but not without a high-ranking lord!” But did they truly not consider their livelihoods? Indeed, they too are human beings who are an amalgamation of the material and the spiritual. As such, they cannot exist without sustenance. The nonchalant attitude of treating this fact as a given, referred to as takayōji 高楊子, was only made possible by the provision of food and clothing from benevolent lords. Furthermore, loyalty to the lord should be understood as a form of compensation for the regular stipends they received. Various sources indicate this interpretation; see, for example, the book Oyabun kobun 親分子分 by Shirayanagi Shūko 白柳秀湖. Even regarding the so-called Kenmu 建武 Restoration [1333–1336], which is said to be the most remarkable revival of the national spirit, the author of Taiheiki 太平記 (Record of the Great Peace) offers the following criticism:

The beginning of the Genkō 元弘 Civil War saw all the brave soldiers of the realm united and fiercely determined to serve the imperial forces. There is nothing else that compares to their dedication. Their only intention was to achieve merit and rewards through achieving peace in battle.

Furthermore, it is stated that the reasons for this upheaval include the biased distribution of rewards, excessive taxation for the construction of the imperial palace, extreme centralization of power, and the revocation of titles from vassals, among other things. Can we not see the defeat of spiritualism depicted here as well? Truly, human culture is a blossoming flower rooted in the fundamental aspects of sexual desire and productive relations. Therefore, mere spiritual and personality-centered ideologies are empty illusions and unattainable deceptions. Regarding sexual desire, it has been a significant misconception to degrade it as mere animalistic lust. No matter how much it has been denigrated, it remains a natural and legitimate demand. How many sins have been committed due to the lack of wisdom in response to these natural urges? In the distant past, reproductive organs were revered as sacred, but the so-called spiritual and personality-centered ideologies distorted this natural purity. In fact, sexual desire should also be liberated in a human way. The recent emphasis on sex education is a welcome trend. Certainly, the fulfillment of actual life rooted in instincts and the purification of one’s character are the essential demands of a genuine human life and the fundamental impetus toward creating heaven on earth. This is indeed the path that revitalized Buddhists should follow. This issue will be further clarified and affirmed in the critique of the next chapter.

Chapter 5: The Masses in Modern Society Desire Economic Stability and thus Demand the Transformation of Capitalism

22. Economic Reforms Should Be Focused on Ordinary Workers

Now we come to our fourth critique.

The modern masses are deeply troubled by the instability of their economic lives. They attribute the cause to capitalist economic organization and seek to transform it into a socialist economic system. In response to this remarkable popular movement unfolding before our eyes, many religious figures, especially established Buddhist leaders, have stubbornly emphasized spiritualism.

It is said that: “Regardless of how much we transform the institutional organization, if our hearts do not change, it will be in vain.” However, is it really true that without a change of heart, the transformation of institutional organizations will be ineffective?

At the same time, we are not advocates of the supremacy of materialism. Human beings, unlike other animals, possess the creative ability to influence their environment while also being affected by it, and they have a degree of freedom to transcend certain aspects of their environment. Like Zen master Kaisen 快川, who sat in the midst of fire and said, “When the mind is annihilated, the fire is also cool,” or Socrates, who spoke of justice while raising the cup of poison, or Boyi 伯夷 and Shuqi 叔斉, who chose to starve to death on Mount Shouyang 首陽 rather than drink from a stolen spring, or Christ or Master Nichiren, who showed compassion even when dragged to the execution ground, humans are capable of cultivating a mindset of freedom through their spiritual training. Even in the face of death, humans can achieve such states, let alone amid the abundance or scarcity of material possessions. Human happiness is obtained not merely through material satisfaction but rather through the disposition of the mind! It wouldn’t be entirely untrue to say so.

However, an important point to consider here is the capacity for spiritual practice in society at large. For example, a skilled mountaineer may trace a path up a sheer cliff, but that path cannot be recommended as a general route for ordinary people. Similarly, expecting ordinary individuals to attain the mindset of saints who willingly starve themselves to death or reach enlightenment with phrases like “the fire is cool” is an unrealistic proposition. The issue of institutional reform must be examined as a necessary means for creating a happy life for the general population. Advocates of institutional reform should also understand that it is not enough to focus solely on transforming the institutional system while disregarding the spiritual aspect of life. The transformation of the system is a fundamental requirement for creating a more fulfilling life and a positive mindset.

Moreover, as discussed in the previous section, the functions of the mind, or spirit, do not exist independently from the body; rather, they are psychological phenomena experienced in relation to the body and nature. For example, when the body becomes weak, the mind is more likely to become weak as well, and when experiencing poverty, one is more likely to face a series of anxieties. These mental states are subject to various changes and are not absolute. Therefore, when considering the masses in a social context, rather than focusing on individual mental states, it should be clear that providing a better environment is not only important for practical living but also for the cultivation of a positive mindset. Even cats, depending on how they are raised, can stop catching mice, while dogs and monkeys, who typically have a contentious relationship, can become affectionate companions through proper upbringing. This clearly illustrates how the nature of things—that is, the environment—can significantly influence the characteristics of living beings. Nevertheless, there are those who approach institutional organization without considering the importance of these environmental factors. What is lacking is the light of a transformed mindset that differs from that of ordinary individuals in society. Do the various gifts that are seen as products of spiritualism have any social effects? In fact, aren’t they themselves part of a cycle of exploitation, living off the riches of temple lands or completely subservient to wealthy patrons, knowing well that they cannot survive without such submission? If religion is supposed to provide a transcendent peace beyond life and death, how can we explain the extraordinary efforts and peace that socialists, considered by some as demons and opponents of spiritual ideologies, demonstrate in their movement—a drive that goes beyond life and death?

23. Without a Steady Livelihood There Can Be No Enduring Peace of Mind

Indeed, many of the current spiritualists who disregard the reform of institutions may lack understanding or exhibit a lack of compassion. However, the revered spiritual leaders of the past, including Śākyamuni Buddha, were not like that, as I argued in the previous section. Now, let us further illustrate this point by borrowing appropriate words from Mengzi 孟子 [371–289 BCE] and continue the discussion. Mengzi’s advice to King Hui 惠 [fl. 4th c. BCE] of Liang 梁 famously began with the statement, “Your Majesty, why must you place such emphasis on profit? It should be righteousness and benevolence alone.” However, Mengzi’s concept of righteousness and benevolence went beyond mere abstract ideas. He taught that it is through politics that the livelihood of the masses is guaranteed, and he further expounded on this idea as follows:

If there is no stable livelihood, there can be no enduring commitment. Only the noble class can maintain enduring commitment, while the common people, lacking a stable livelihood, cannot. Without enduring commitment, they will be prone to indulgence and extravagance. When they fall into wrongdoing, they will be subject to punishment. This will only lead to the confusion and disturbance of the people. . . . Nowadays, the livelihood of the common people is so restricted that it is neither sufficient to serve their parents nor to support their wives and children. Even in prosperous years, they suffer until the end of their lives, and in years of famine, they cannot escape death. How then could they have leisure for cultivating ritual and righteousness?

Indeed, this criticism closely reflects the current state of society. It is futile to preach spiritualism and impose moral compliance on a restless and burdened population that lacks the opportunity to redirect their focus and learn about proper etiquette. Not only is it ineffective, but it also exhibits an extreme lack of compassion. It is truly necessary for the general population to have a stable livelihood first, as emphasized by the teachings of Mengzi when he spoke about understanding rituals and propriety. Nāgārjuna (fl. 2nd–3rd c.) also mentioned this in the Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom: “When people commit the ten unwholesome actions, it is all due to poverty. If a person has their five desires fulfilled, they will act according to their wishes and will not engage in the ten unwholesome actions.”

Indeed, love is not simply a concept or an illusion, but is itself a practice. It is through practice that we can better discover and rectify errors, constantly engage in objective criticism, and recognize universality.

24. Capitalism Deprives People of a Sustainable Livelihood

Most people today lack sustainable livelihoods. About 90 percent of the working population belongs to the proletariat. They scrape by, day by day, through their labor. Moreover, the streets are filled with countless vagrants who have no place to work. How did we end up in such a situation? While religious figures preach about the importance of spiritual cultivation and criticize those who don’t work diligently, the reality is that the masses, despite having the will and ability to work, lack opportunities for employment. Even if they manage to earn some money, their lives remain constantly unstable due to the whims of the market. This is the harsh reality created by the capitalist economic system. Therefore, it is only natural for the masses to feel sympathy and support toward the socialist movement, which advocates for its transformation.

Why does capitalism deprive the masses of their permanent possessions and push them miserably toward the poverty line?

The explanation for the workings of capitalist exploitation, as understood in various socialist texts, can be summarized as follows: it is essentially due to the economic organization of commodity fetishism, mechanization, and unplanned, selfish competition driven by wage labor. In a society based on free competition, producers with more capital, who can afford better machinery and cheaper raw materials, can outcompete those with less capital, who are forced to purchase inferior raw materials at higher prices. While in the era of handicrafts, there was little difference in terms of output and labor required for producing commodities, the introduction of mechanized production accentuated this disparity significantly.

Thus, individual efforts become secondary to the amount of capital one possesses, and dominant capitalists continue to defeat and further weaken their less fortunate competitors, solidifying their own advantage. As a result, the number of unemployed individuals increases steadily. Furthermore, the invention of sophisticated machinery deprives workers of their labor power, contributing to the growth of the unemployed population. The increase in unemployment affects the supply and demand of labor, leading to a decrease in wages. Additionally, due to the unplanned nature of competitive production, the outcome of competition often results in overproduction—leading to cries of “overstocked goods” or “industrial rationalization”—which further exacerbates the issues of wage reduction and layoffs, causing further distress for workers. This situation is not limited to a single sector but extends to retail markets and rural areas as well. Small-scale retailers face immense pressure from large-scale department stores owned by powerful capitalists. In rural areas, agricultural products—the fruit of labor—are bought at low prices while other necessary goods are sold at high prices, leading us to witness the peculiar phenomenon known as the “hell of bountiful harvests.” All of this is a consequence of the unplanned, free-market capitalist economic system.

In such a scenario, the masses, even if they are willing to work, lose job opportunities, and those who manage to find work experience a decline in income. They are gradually pushed from the poverty line toward the starvation line. Meanwhile, a small group of capitalists grows fatter and wealthier. Naturally, this intensifies class conflict, leading to fierce struggles, and ultimately, the day of revolution draws closer in capitalist society. This is our current situation.

Indeed, in capitalist society, the escalating class struggle itself is a testament to the inherent nature of such a system. It is the ultimate non-Buddhist society, driven by the pursuit of self-interest and profit. Therefore, no matter how much religious leaders advocate for cooperation and brotherly love, so long as the fundamental structure [of industrial capitalist society] remains unchanged, these calls will inevitably be mere illusions and deceptions. Since human lives are intertwined with the material world, as Mengzi said, “How can they have leisure for cultivating ritual and righteousness?” This is an unavoidable fate.

25. A Communal Society Provides Life Stability

However, a socialist society is not like the profit-driven society based on free competition seen in capitalism. It is a cooperative society that practices mutual assistance. In a cooperative society, all means of production, including the production facilities that enable capitalism, are not privately owned by individuals but managed as common property of the whole society and used for collective production. Therefore, the products of labor are not commodities for individuals to profit from and increase their private wealth but are rather collectively produced goods intended for the well-being, livelihood, and security of all members of society by way of planned production. Consequently, every member engaged in production has the right to be allocated the necessary means of livelihood, eliminating any anxieties about bread or basic necessities. Of course, this society also has strict penalties for those who refuse to work and are lazy, denying them access to food. As a result, the negative traits of laziness and undesirable competition gradually disappear, and what emerges is a society characterized by the joy and effort of creative coexistence and mutual prosperity, which can be proudly regarded as a human privilege.

I would like to provide a brief clarification in response to the criticism that in a cooperative society where private property is abolished or distribution is made equal people would lose the drive to work and express discontent, making a cooperative society impossible. Such criticism overlooks the underlying reasons why people have come to demand private property. By examining those reasons, we can easily find a resolution as this criticism is indeed a product of the ideological framework of individualistic economic organization.

The demand for private property arose because in a self-centered, free-market economy where individuals are not collectively responsible for ensuring each other’s livelihoods within the community or society, private property becomes an absolute necessity. However, in a society where essential aspects of life such as clothing, food, shelter, as well as education, health care, and other basic needs are socially guaranteed, private property is by no means an absolute requirement. Moreover, in a society where productive forces have advanced and the supply and demand of the entire society are adequately fulfilled and harmonized on a social level, the significance of private property diminishes even further.

Moreover, regarding distribution, equality in a communal society means giving seven [units of payment] to those who contribute seven units of labor and giving three to those who contribute three units. Furthermore, as social training progresses, it is reasonable to expect that when needs arise—seven [units of payment] for seven needs, three [units of payment] for three needs—distribution according to ability and need will not lead to any complaints. This is evident when reflecting on the harmonious family lives we currently lead. However, if we consider that such criticisms often come from spiritualists and proponents of personalism who preach “sacrifice” and “public service,” we cannot help but be surprised by the blatant contradictions in their arguments. On the one hand, they affirm the pursuit of personal desires and interests, while on the other they promote the idea of sacrifice and devotion as the essence of human existence. It is perplexing that they fail to recognize the stark inconsistency in their own arguments. If they truly believe in the virtues of a cooperative society without private ownership, they should be at the forefront of promoting such a society themselves!

These people have fallen into inconsistency in their arguments and thereby have demonstrated their inherent weakness in succumbing to the domination of materialistic desires in their own lives. And precisely because of that, shouldn’t we consider implementing a collective society by socializing our economic organization, thereby realizing the ideal society of mutual love and harmony that they themselves desire?

This explanation has provided a broad overview of the fundamental structure of a communal society. In practice, the implementation may vary based on geographical and industry-specific considerations; it is not a simple or mechanical process to achieve universal equality. The essence of a communal society lies in viewing the entire society as a cohesive organism, where mutual assistance replaces exploitation and the pursuit of individual profit. This communal society emerges inevitably out of capitalism, which can no longer endure the adverse effects of intensified free competition. As capitalism naturally evolves into a cooperative form, it loses its inherent characteristics, which focus on personal profit-seeking and competition, and transitions into a communal society. Therefore, we must acknowledge that there is ample possibility for the birth of this type of society.

After winter comes spring. After capitalism, a communal society will inevitably be created. Spring is coming! We should not simply put aside heavy burdens and engage with lighter issues; we must not allow ourselves to be diverted. This is a natural demand of honest human nature. It is an inevitable force that cannot be obstructed even by opium-like rhetoric. It is time for change. All those with awakened hearts should actively strive for this transformation; there is no reason to curse its development.

26. The Ideal Life for Buddhists

The ideal lifestyle for Buddhists was a monastic life that renounced personal desires. The monastic life is a communal and social life, as opposed to life in a society driven by personal profit. Temples represented the embodiment of this communal living ideal. Therefore, material possessions were referred to as shihōmono 四方物 or jūmotsu 什物, indicating their shared nature. These possessions held a collective meaning. They were considered part of the natural way of life based on the fundamental principles of the Buddhist spirit such as “emptiness,” “interdependent co-arising,” “interdependence,” and “selflessness.”

Of course, during the time of the Buddha, householders were allowed to possess private property and engage in profit-oriented livelihoods. However, even in the lives of householders, the attitude toward possessions was fundamentally the same as that of monastic life. Property was not considered as one’s personal belonging but rather as a societal resource to be stored and managed privately. It was taught that these possessions should be used for the benefit of society when the need arises. The practice of generosity, known as dana 陀那, was emphasized as a primary condition for the social life of Buddhists, and it can be best understood in light of the reasons mentioned above.

Therefore, it is undeniable that Buddhist practitioners, who have long criticized individualism and private ownership as sources of suffering, and who have embraced the ideals and forms of communal society, must now clearly consider how to engage with the aspirations of the masses who seek socialism in the modern world. It is neither a matter of being attached to material forms, nor is it a matter of being attached to the mind alone. Buddhism teaches the inseparability of matter and mind, and therefore, viewing economic issues and the transformation of institutional structures solely as material problems is already a significant misconception. [Socialism] is not merely a materialistic movement; it is an inherent demand for the continuous development of the essence of social and ecological life. Indeed, the social practice of selflessness should find its complete realization in such awareness and action.

However, the understanding and practice of a communal society through the application of the social sciences is not, of course, identical to the understanding and practice of Buddhism. There is room for mutual criticism in this regard. And yet, when it comes to the ultimate ideal of transforming capitalism into a communal social organization, they are in agreement. Therefore, as Buddhists we should take the lead in advocating for, and participating in, this transformation [toward socialism], and through our participation we should aim for the inner purification of the movement for change.

Chapter 6: Awakened Humanity Transcends Nationalism and Promotes Internationalism

27. The Significance of Nationalism and Internationalism

The fifth issue concerns nationalism and internationalism. This issue is a significant problem that stands out in twentieth-century world history, and the traditionally established Buddhist sects have unquestionably sided with nationalism. The Shin sect, for example, emphasizes “imperial law as fundamental” (ōbō ihon 王法為本), Shingon promotes “protecting the nation” (chingo kokka 鎮護国家), Zen advocates “promoting Zen and protecting the nation” (kōzen gokoku 興禅護国), and the Nichiren sect proudly wields its famous On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land to fulfill its role as a state-endorsed religion. But is this approach consistent with the true spirit of Buddhism? Is it in line with the original intentions of the respective sect founders?

In order to reexamine these questions, we should briefly explain the characteristics of nationalism and internationalism.

Nationalism is a tendency that prioritizes the maintenance and development of the nation-state, often in opposition to individualism or internationalism, with individuals or global interests being subordinate to the interests of the nation. The arguments in favor of prioritizing the maintenance and development of the nation-state are diverse. They can include the absolute belief, influenced by Hegel, that “the state is divine, and there is no wrongdoing in what the state does” or that “the state is the highest form of morality.” Another perspective is that the state represents the ideal form of social development, enabling humanity to lead ethical lives and enjoy proper well-being. Along these lines, nationalism values national discipline over freedom in domestic policies, while rejecting imperialism on the international stage. Moreover, nationalism emphasizes the necessity of defending the state through military force to ensure its maintenance and development. While wishing for international peace, those who hold this position tend to lack genuine goodwill toward supranational international conferences. Furthermore, nationalism views the social aspect of humanity as more essential than its national character and strongly opposes socialism or communism, which advocate for the disappearance of class conflict and the demise of the state.

Now, let us discuss internationalism. Internationalism, in contrast to nationalism, emphasizes the ideal of mutual coexistence and mutual benefit for all humanity, recognizing the importance of supranational collective interests over national interests. It advocates cooperation and mutual assistance among nations or classes. Therefore, internationalism focuses on issues such as disarmament and even the complete abolition of war, as well as international economic control. In essence, nationalism prioritizes the interests of one’s own country, while internationalism strives for global cooperation. In practical terms, nationalism tends to align with capitalism, while internationalism leans toward socialism. Thus, these two ideologies are inherently incompatible. Should Buddhism continue to align with nationalism?

28. Buddhism Is a Doctrine of the Middle Way

Buddhism is indeed the middle way. However, the middle way does not refer to compromise or simply following a moderate path. It is the practice of comprehensive observation that transcends extremes. In Buddhist terminology, as mentioned by our Mr. Kankichi 神吉 in his work Clearing up the Misunderstandings of Revitalized Buddhism, the middle way is synonymous with the Ennobling Eightfold Path, which includes right view, right intention, right effort, and so on. It begins with seeing the true nature of things accurately. It involves not being swayed by popular opinions, personal biases, desires, or preferences, but rather striving to see things as they truly are, free from delusions and with a selfless mindset, and practicing in accordance with this ideal. If we interpret “middle way” as “being centered on the path,” it implies engaging in the most appropriate practice according to the circumstances. In simple terms, it involves pursuing comprehensive development toward the ideal while staying firmly grounded in reality.

If we consider matters from this point of view, just as a silkworm transforms into a cocoon and then into a moth, human history is also a process of change and development. As such, I believe that Buddhism should uphold internationalism as an ideal and strive for its realization in order to eradicate the conflicts among nations caused by nationalism. I will now explain the reasons for this belief by examining human nature, historical evidence, and current practical issues.

29. Internationalism is the Human Ideal

Hobbes discusses the origins of the state and claims that primitive humans lived in a society where individuals engaged in constant struggles driven by self-interest and selfish desires, ultimately leading to self-destructive behavior. Recognizing this, a social contract was established to control individuals, and this became the origin of the state. Plato’s theory of the ideal state divides it into several classes: the first class consists of philosophers, the second class consists of warriors, and the third class consists of farmers and merchants who make up the majority [of the population] and are driven by material desires. To control them, Plato argues for the presence of a rational philosopher class at the top, supported by a second class of warriors. Even in modern social science, the state is considered an exploitative mechanism. Regardless of the perspective, the defining characteristic of the state is its dominant power, which is exercised to address the inherent struggle and malice in human nature. The notion of the state being the highest moral authority stems from the perspective that individual conflicts are mitigated only through state control and governance, allowing people to live in peace. Nevertheless, it is a fact that humans also possess a social nature that desires peace. Locke’s theory of the origin of the state contradicts Hobbes, suggesting that primitive societies were not characterized by conflict but rather by peaceful communal living. It was only when this peace was disrupted that social control became necessary, marking the origin of the state. Aristotle’s famous saying, “Man is a political animal,” also speaks to this, as do all these [abovementioned] theories, which convey the goodness of human nature.

As can be seen from these perspectives, nationalism originates from the malignancy of human nature, while internationalism originates from the goodness of human nature, each reflecting a different aspect of humanity. However, when considering the ideal of a creative and rational human life, which of the two should be the primary focus? Criticizing this through the lens of the middle way, it becomes clear that the promotion of goodness, namely the creation of a mutually supportive society without authoritarian domination, should be the decisive solution.

Furthermore, according to Marxist state theory, which asserts that human history is a history of class struggle, there was an initial communist society without conflict at its social inception, and a future communist society without conflict is anticipated in the later history of humanity. Throughout this process, there are indeed state-based conflicts and struggles, but conflicting states with opposing interests are expected to be eliminated with the collapse of capitalism, leading humanity to evolve into a global society of mutual assistance without domination. In any case, according to the selflessness advocated by Buddhism—which perceives things as they are and adapts to the actual state of affairs—it is indeed appropriate to promote internationalism rather than nationalism.

30. History Demonstrates a Trend Toward Internationalism

What does the historical record tell us about this issue? The most remarkable emergence of social ideologies has always occurred after wars. Taking modern examples, after the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, social ideologies arose in opposition to individualism. Similarly, after the recent world war, social ideologies emerged against nationalism. Although it is true that these developments are still incomplete in practice, this fact clearly indicates the potential for the development of internationalism. It is true that recent times have seen a notable resurgence of nationalism worldwide. However, this is a reactionary phenomenon and cannot be seen as a negation of the necessity of internationalism. On the contrary, it underscores the need for a higher level of development in internationalism. The phenomenon of nationalism does not arise naturally from the masses. Rather, it is an unnatural phenomenon that results from the conscious efforts of ruling classes, motivated by their own interests, to suppress and manipulate the socialist and internationalist consciousness and movements that have emerged strongly among the general population. While it may be temporarily possible to impose nationalist dams that impede the flow of rivers and exploit them for capitalist profit, the flowing waters have not ceased their resistance in their pursuit of the vast ocean.

Even the recent advocacy of state socialism is not evidence of the impossibility of internationalism. Rather, it can be seen as a socialist modification of nationalism, and in essence, a step toward approaching internationalism. We should pause and observe the overall trajectory of human history. What do the collapse of monarchies and the transition to republics and democratic nations in modern times signify? These phenomena should be seen as a reckoning of nationalism and an anticipation of the potential for internationalism. Entities such as the League of Nations, established in 1920, may have been a league of capitalist nations with inherent contradictions, deceits, and inadequacies, but it still provided a glimpse of internationalism. Indeed, it is said, “When a hundred rivers enter the sea, they share the same salty taste. When [people of] the four castes enter Buddhism, they become one as followers of Śākya [Buddha].” The ideal of “universal solidarity” is by no means a mere fantasy.

31. Current International Trends

If we examine the current global reality, characterized by the emergence of highly interconnected economic relationships, can we not say that the facts before us eloquently explain the need to transcend nationalism and progress toward internationalism?

In his recent pamphlet titled National Socialism and Controlled Economy, Hayashi Kimio 林癸未夫 writes: “While internationalism cannot be completely dismissed as an incorrect theory, I believe that as current Japanese citizens, it is only natural to act based on nationalism rather than internationalism. Japan is now facing a critical situation and international isolation, and in the face of the survival and peril of our homeland, it is not permissible to act based on internationalism.” We also agree that our homeland is currently experiencing “international isolation” and facing a “critical situation.” But what has caused this “isolation” and “critical situation”? Are they not the cursed results brought about by the capitalist nationalism of various countries around the world? The development of nationalism exacerbates the risk of international warfare, promotes the wasteful expansion of military armaments, and often leads to increased taxes and rising prices. These are inevitable consequences. This may present opportunities for a few industrial or financial capitalists to gain profits, but this is not a path to increased happiness for the general masses. On the contrary, they become the causes of misery and economic oppression for the majority, as theory and experience clearly demonstrate. But what makes all this possible in the first place? By viewing human history as a struggle between classes and ethnic conflicts, national socialism demands the suppression of class struggle in favor of ethnic struggle. However, ethnic conflicts in the modern era are an inevitable product of capitalism.

Therefore, the overthrow and transformation of capitalism necessarily involves the resolution of ethnic conflicts. And since the transformation of capitalism is the collective problem of the proletariat throughout the world, the international socialist movement is the true path to human liberation. In essence, the world is interconnected as a unified entity, where cultural and material forms should flow freely. This promise is increasingly being recognized in the present era of international relations. It is the delusions rooted in nationalism and associated ideologies that obstruct the development of human culture. Clearing away these ideologies is an urgent matter for humanity, and we believe that it can only be achieved through international socialist principles.

Let us consider the management of Manchukuo 満洲国 as an example. Manchukuo, said to be Japan’s lifeline, encompasses a vast territory of 77,000 ri 里, including 33,000 square ri of arable land and abundant natural resources; this is capable of accommodating over fifty million people. What makes the development of Manchukuo possible? Is it through military force? That can only be a temporary solution—those who rise by the sword will perish by the sword. The development of Manchukuo is only possible through an internationalist attitude that transcends self-centered calculations and through the economic cooperation and affinity between the Chinese, Japanese, and White Russian communities, among others. We may recall the words of Nanshū 南州, which seem appropriate even today:

Japan must engage with China on equal terms. Merely wearing Japanese clothing and standing before the Chinese people is not enough. Japan’s talented individuals should actively naturalize themselves in China. Through these individuals, China can be morally and splendidly uplifted as a righteous nation. Without such efforts, friendship between Japan and China cannot be achieved.

Buddhism teaches the concept of interdependent co-arising, whereby everything is interconnected, and emphasizes a worldview in which people rely on others and struggle alongside them. The development of one country is the development of the world, and a global recession in turn affects individual nations.

This fact is evident in the relationship between Germany and other nations during the postwar reparations issue, where the nations agreed to reduce billions of dollars in reparations to a mere three billion marks and approved conditions that were close to debt forgiveness in an attempt to revive the global economy. Similarly, future issues such as war debts are also problems that can only be resolved through internationalism. Recently, the concept of self-sufficiency in the economy has been advocated, but it remains limited to certain sectors of production and is inherently impossible. Therefore, international control of the economy must increasingly be considered as a crucial issue.

Furthermore, when considering the issue of colonialism due to population growth, the necessity of internationalism is strongly felt. In such cases, proponents of reactionary nationalism may show willingness to establish their right to survival through the use of force, but such measures are by no means sustainable. Such deeds will once again trigger the evil behavior that led to world war. The world war, which lasted only five years, resulted in the deaths of millions, with around nine million soldiers killed, three and a half million disabled, and nineteen million injured, not to mention the destruction of approximately five hundred billion [yen] worth of resources. It is important to remember that the primary culprits responsible for such catastrophic damages were the very proponents of nationalist ideologies that undermined international cooperation. In a world interconnected like a chain, nation-centered nationalism eventually destroys the entire chain and, consequently, undermines the welfare of each nation. Hasn’t this fact been clearly demonstrated by the previous world war?

32. The Middle Way Advocates Internationalism Rather Than Nationalism

For all the above reasons, Revitalized Buddhism passionately declares, “Toward internationalism, rather than nationalism!” To this, nationalists will likely object. Even Soviet Russia, which aims to prioritize production, cannot refrain from maintaining a formidable military in the current state of the world, where nations still find it necessary to possess strong armaments. Therefore, ideals like internationalism can be nothing more than a faint mirage. From the beginning, then, we are well aware that the path to achieving complete internationalism is still a distant dream. However, this is precisely why we cannot find any basis for rejecting internationalism but rather believe in the necessity of vigorously promoting it.

Furthermore, nationalists will view internationalists as unpatriotic individuals who ignore their homeland and may seek on that basis to exclude them. We, on the contrary, see nationalists as short-sighted individuals who bring harm to their own country. Patriotism does not lie solely in blind loyalty. Buddhism teaches, “One who abandons gratitude and acts without seeking reward is the true benefactor.” “Acting without seeking reward” refers to truth—to selflessness. The sage Nanshū also said, “If you do not possess the spirit of dedicating oneself to the nation by walking the path of righteousness, international relations should be avoided altogether.” Moreover, this is not about international compromise. It is precisely about the great path of world peace and mutual love among humanity. Therefore, internationalism should not contradict the true meaning of patriotism; rather, efforts to realize internationalism at the national level must embody the great bodhisattva practice by which “those who wish to become buddhas should help all sentient beings.” The fundamental aspiration of religion has been centered around beauty. For example, Nichiren’s assertion, “How could one not think of their country when they are fortunate enough to be born in this land?” reflects the content of his “thinking of the country,” which is about the truth of the homeland and not merely a nationalistic sense of patriotism. In the face of the Mongol invasion, he wrote:

If it comes to pass that the Mongols draw near and our country meets its demise, it would be a lamentable affair. However, even in such a situation, if the people of Japan were to slander the Lotus Sutra, they would surely fall into the Avīci hell without respite. Even if the Japanese were to exert force, the country would perish, but slandering the Dharma (committing injustice) would be even more despicable. It is comparable to using moxibustion to treat an illness and still resorting to harming others for personal gain. Though it may cause sorrow at the time, ultimately, it will bring joy later. (From Letter on Many in Body, One in Mind)

Words uttered with such composure are certainly not those of a self-centered nationalist. They exemplify internationalism. Furthermore, the act of the young Śākyamuni Buddha leaving behind his ancestral country and entering the mountains, and the words of Jesus saying, “Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s” were not about disregarding or being ungrateful to their homelands. On the contrary, they were firmly convinced that eternal benefits lie in the construction of a nation based on truth.

The current nationalist attitude displayed by Buddhists is truly a desecration of the sacred intentions of the founders and patriarchs of the religion. One of the reasons for the decline of religion is undoubtedly its nationalistic transformation. How can the authority of truth be upheld in a religion that has been coopted by the state? Even Gandhi taught that love for truth should be esteemed higher than love for one’s country. Religion should be the critic of the state. Religion should be the advocate of internationalism. That is true patriotism and the practice of moderation.

Chapter 7: Progressive Buddhists Reject Sectarian Buddhism and Yearn for its Unification

33. Sectarian Studies Serve as Tools for Sectarian Exploitation

There is little need for further explanation on this issue. The speculative doctrinal studies of each sect now appear to be nothing more than instruments of sectarian power. These classical forms have stultified over time, and as a result institutional Buddhism has essentially lost its theoretical basis. Awakened Buddhists today fervently desire the cleansing of sectarianism and the pursuit of a higher level of development [of Buddhist teachings] and unity. As the historical journey of the Buddha’s quest for enlightenment and his teachings of liberation are meticulously studied, the yearning for them intensifies, as evidenced by the grand festivities of sectarian integration held each year.

Indeed, the truth is self-evident. Put simply, “Buddhism is the teaching of the Buddha.” Therefore, it is reasonable to define a Buddhist as someone who believes in the Buddha and practices his teachings in their daily life. However, the fact that Buddhism has become divided into thirteen schools and fifty-six sects begs the question: What led to this fragmentation, and why did it happen? Undoubtedly, this division occurred as a process of cultural development that responded to the needs of each era and the capabilities of individuals. Hence, these sects that are divided are not immutable entities. They, too, must undergo a reckoning and transformation in accordance with the needs of the present time. In other words, the doctrines of each sect, though slightly different from one another, fundamentally revolve around the concept of “selflessness” and advocate the practice of love and equality in everyday life. However, these sects also have their own unique characteristics and emphases based on their historical and cultural contexts. Therefore, it is essential to critically assess and reconcile these various sects based on the principles of compassion, wisdom, and the shared goal of alleviating suffering. By doing so, Buddhism can adapt and remain relevant in the contemporary world, fostering unity and harmony among its practitioners.

34. The Division and Development of Buddhism and the Character of Śākyamuni Buddha

When we look at the time of early Buddhism, especially in its initial period, that is, during the time when Śākyamuni Buddha was alive, naturally Śākyamuni was the sole, sacred master, and there were no sectarian divisions among his disciples. This sacred, absolute master-disciple relationship can be seen as the original form in which Buddhism developed as a religion. However, after the Buddha’s passing, the monastic community first experienced a split between the Sthaviras (Theravādins) and the Mahāsāṃghikas (Great Assembly). This was followed by further divisions and subdivisions, eventually resulting in the formation of the twenty schools, with the Sautrāntika school being the last. Even during the period of sectarian Buddhism, the force of Śākyamuni Buddha’s character continued to exert influence over all the schools. The motivation for these divisions lay in the differing interpretations of the scriptures and doctrines, shaped by the social circumstances of each community. Nevertheless, the sincere attitude of Buddhist disciples who sought to grasp the true spirit of Śākyamuni Buddha’s teachings in their respective eras demonstrates the absolute authority of his character.

After this comes the era which saw the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. The fervent study of scriptures further heightened the reverence and longing for Śākyamuni Buddha’s character. This deep longing eventually led Nāgārjuna to expound on the theory of the two truths, asserting that although the physical form of Śākyamuni Buddha may pass away, the immortal Dharma body (dharmakāya) exists and continues to inspire the faith of Buddhist practitioners. This understanding established the Dharma body as the object of devotion for Buddhists, as described in texts such as the Nirvana Sutra: “I have already established the sutras and precepts. You, my disciples, should simply study these sutras and precepts and diligently practice them. I too am among the (monastic) sangha.” Or as mentioned in the Sutra of the Last Teachings:

All the practices of self-benefit and benefiting others are complete. Even if I were to dwell for a long time, there would be no further benefit. Those who should be guided, whether they are celestial beings or human beings, have already been guided. Even those who have not yet been guided have already obtained the karmic conditions for attaining enlightenment. From now on, all my disciples should widely propagate and practice these teachings, for this Dharma body of the Tathāgata is always present and yet never extinguished.

Indeed, passages like these served as the basis for affirming the eternal nature of the Buddha as experienced and instructed by the Buddha himself. These scriptures provided confirmation of the Buddha’s perpetual and indestructible existence.

Nāgārjuna’s theory of the two bodies [nirmāṇakāya and dharmakāya] further evolved into the three-bodies theory of Aśvaghoṣa [80–150] and later into the three- or four-bodies theories of philosophers such as Asaṅga [fl. 4th c.] and Vasubandhu [fl. 4th–5th c.], leading to a period marked by intense discussions on the nature of the Buddha’s body. In that era, various Mahayana scriptures such as the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras, Amitāyus Sutra, Mahāvairocana Sutra, and Avataṃsaka Sutra gained popularity and competed for attention. All these texts, without exception, stemmed from the Buddha’s enlightenment experience under the Bodhi tree and aimed to explore the content of enlightenment—particularly the reaffirmation of the Buddha’s imperishable nature. Among them, the Lotus Sutra stands out as a representative scripture that vividly presents the perfected vision of the true Buddha. Without delving into a detailed explanation, the distinguishing features of the Lotus Sutra can be summarized as follows: the first half emphasizes the potential for all sentient beings to attain buddhahood, while the latter half elucidates the various aspects of the Buddha’s body, manifesting the historical Śākyamuni Buddha as the eternal, awakened Buddha of the primordial enlightenment. This scripture represents the climax of devotion to Śākyamuni Buddha and epitomizes the ongoing reappreciation of the Buddha throughout the Mahayana Buddhist tradition.

Mahayana Buddhism, the development of which can be referred to as a period of doctrinal systematization, was transmitted to Japan via Chinese Buddhism. It then further developed during the Kamakura period, a practical and religious era that showcased the characteristics of Japanese Buddhism. However, during this time, a tendency toward independent interpretation was particularly pronounced in religious matters. Sectarian conflicts were carried out vehemently and even led to a misguided disregard for Śākyamuni Buddha. For instance, Kōbō Daishi’s teaching of the inferiority of the Lotus Sutra [in relation to the Shingon and Kegon sutras] and Hōnen’s notion of the “fivefold miscellaneous practices” led some believers to prioritize the worship of Amida Buddha and Dainichi Nyorai while disregarding Śākyamuni Buddha. This tendency was an unavoidable result of the objective social circumstances. However, even during this period, the essence of Buddhism, which centered around Śākyamuni Buddha, returned, reestablishing the rightful lineage of Buddhism. The movement led by Master Nichiren, based on the Lotus Sutra, exemplified this return. He says the following in “Concerning the Statue of Śākyamuni Buddha Fashioned by Nichigen-nyo 日眼女 (d.u.)”:

The donor, Lady Nichigen-nyo, fashioned a three-inch wooden statue representing the unity of the Lord of the Three Realms, the Founder of the Teachings, Śākyamuni Buddha. . . . “The Life Span of the Tathāgata” chapter of the Lotus Sutra describes various teachings such as the self-body and the other-body. The eastern Pure Land buddhas, the central Mahāvairocana Buddha, the buddhas of the ten directions, the seven buddhas of the past, the buddhas of the three periods, the bodhisattvas of superior conduct, and others, such as Mañjuśrī, Śāriputra, the Great Brahma King, . . . the heavenly deities, earth deities, and so on—all of these are none other than the supreme teacher, Śākyamuni Buddha. Even the deities such as Amaterasu Ōmikami and the Great Bodhisattva Hachiman have Śākyamuni Buddha as their original source. For example, Śākyamuni Buddha is like the moon in the heavens, while all other buddhas and bodhisattvas are like the reflections shimmering upon a myriad of waters. To erect a statue of Śākyamuni is to honor all the buddhas of the ten directions. It is like shaking one’s head and causing the hair to move, or thinking with the mind and causing the body to act. When a strong wind blows, it stirs not only the grass and trees but also disturbs the vast ocean. Similarly, by reverently upholding and venerating the supreme teacher, Śākyamuni Buddha, even the unyielding plants and trees come to life.

This text, as such, must be considered one of the most vivid scriptures; it completely exalts the absolute centrality of Śākyamuni Buddha and dismisses all other contemporary ideologies. In this way, Japanese Buddhism has continued to this day, with Master Nichiren as its leader. As for the current trends in modern Buddhism, as mentioned earlier, they vary. The two-thousand-five-hundred-year history of Buddhism has essentially been a quest to admire the character of Śākyamuni Buddha and explore the content of his enlightenment, developing and practicing it in different eras, all in the pursuit of the path to liberation.

35. Buddhist Philosophy Is Based on the Recognition and Practice of Selfless Love

The understanding of Buddhism among contemporary Buddhists can be said to be represented by Dr. Takakusu’s [article] “The Fundamental Meaning of Buddhism,” recently published in the Yomiuri shinbun 読売新聞 [in which he writes]:

Śākyamuni Buddha fundamentally stood upon his own character, developed and enhanced that character, and attained the state of buddhahood. Amida Buddha and Mahāvairocana Buddha [Dainichi Nyorai] are ideals born from Śākyamuni’s own aspirations. These represent the ultimate human perfection. . . . The qualification for a religion is established when disciples of the present and those of future generations can sense the spiritual power of the Buddha, perceiving it as the embodiment of that ideal. . . . A complete religion is one that is manifested in the complete character of the Buddha.

In addition, the late Shimaji Daitō 島地大等 wrote in his book Thought and Faith:

Within the historical persona of Śākyamuni, both Śākyamuni himself and his disciples recognized the true nature of the Buddha, thereby clarifying the concept of the Tathāgata. That is to say, the historical Śākyamuni himself embodies the Buddha, and we, as human beings, are also thoroughly and completely the Buddha. Therefore, we find the Buddha within humanity—it is not the case that God creates humans.

In these passages it becomes clear that both Amida Buddha and Mahavairocana Buddha are ideal buddhas abstracted from the historical Śākyamuni. It is firmly recognized that there is no absolute Buddha who exists other than Śākyamuni to help us. Naturally, the historical Śākyamuni does not exist in the present; what exists now is the truth realized by the historical Śākyamuni, namely the truth of “selflessness.” Those seekers who aim to recognize and experience that truth will naturally have reverence for the Buddha—the great manifestation of that truth—and this reverence for the Buddha further facilitates the realization of the truth. In this psychological sense, Buddhism can be seen as a theistic religion, as it promotes the attainment of truth. However, in the true sense, Buddhism is certainly nontheistic and does not acknowledge the existence of any personal entity that has power over us.

In essence, faith in Amida and Mahavairocana Buddha is a symbol of reverence toward the perfected personality of Śākyamuni, the great Buddha himself. Therefore, we no longer need the idealized names of Amida and Mahavairocana Buddha, but rather, the essential attitude of Buddhist practitioners lies in their reverence for the Buddha and the practice of his truth. This necessitates the abandonment of all divisive sectarianism and the pursuit of Buddhist unity. Moreover, especially in the case of contemporary individuals seeking a religion, it is not the traditional otherworldly, soteriological religious beliefs mentioned above that are sought, but rather a religion that is realistic and ethical in nature. In this regard, such an authentic religious movement can be seen as a dual-sided movement: on one hand, it reflects the counterinfluence of social movements, and on the other hand, it represents the highest ideals of self-realization and self-completion, as advocated by Dr. Takakusu:

This is the teaching of “the inseparability of the Buddha and ordinary beings,” which aims to lead individuals to the highest state of buddhahood. From the perspective of potentiality, it is the inseparability of the Buddha and ordinary beings; from the perspective of attainment, it is the inseparability of the Buddha and ordinary beings. In other words, it asserts that human beings and gods are not fundamentally different but share the same human nature.

This represents an ideal religious form of “the unity of the divine and human.”

When viewed in this way, it must be said that the theoretical basis of religious negation expressed by the current and vociferous antireligious movement of Marxism is off the mark when it comes to true Buddhism. This is because Marxism criticizes religion as an abstract and theistic ideology, particularly referring to Christianity. However, Buddhism is a religion with the above characteristics—and indeed, the Buddha himself rejected the prevailing conceptual religion of his time, Brahmanism, and advocated an ethically-grounded religion based on reason, as noted above. However, Buddhism has indeed been represented by a Christian-like, other-power-oriented, transcendental religion, as seen in the Shin sect. And yet, now, even before responding to the voices of the antireligious movement, Buddhism is naturally undergoing an internal movement of self-reassessment, aiming to restore its original essence. This includes critical examination of the fundamental teachings of the shihō rissō 指方立相 doctrine, and such a phenomenon should be celebrated as both an inevitable result of the times and a necessary step toward the reconstruction of a new society as well as a true revitalization of Buddhism.

The thirteen schools and fifty-six sects all originated from the spirit of the Buddha. The teachings of the Infinite Life Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Mahavairocana Sutra, and the seven thousand other scriptures all speak of one thing: the practice of selfless love. Faith in Amida Buddha entails personally experiencing the path of seeking enlightenment through the practice of the Vow as demonstrated by Bodhisattva Dharmākara. This is the same as in the stories of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging and the Medicine King Bodhisattva in the Lotus Sutra, or the story of Sudhana in the Avataṃsaka Sutra; they are all different expressions of the same principle of selfless love in practice. Selfless love is the only path that liberates oneself and others from delusions and attachments. Faith in the Buddha begins with the practice of selfless love and ultimately culminates in that practice.

Without practice, sectarian and speculative Buddhism becomes burdensome and irrelevant. For progressive Buddhists who feel [they have] a mission in social practice, such absolute sectarianism is not only harmful but even an obstacle. Progressive Buddhists should unite under the name of the Buddha and fervently engage in a contemporary practice of selfless love. Such a unified movement is the key to the global development of our Buddhism and a significant contribution to the strengthening of internationalism.

Chapter 8: Conclusion

The above six points criticized traditional Buddhist doctrine. First, I demonstrated that Buddhism is fundamentally atheistic and not theistic as traditionally understood. Second, I explained that Buddhism inherently rejects the existence of individual souls, or the self, emphasizing the doctrine of no-self. Third, I clarified that Buddhism is not a spiritualistic philosophy that disregards economic life but is rather holistic and encompasses all aspects of existence. Fourth, I criticized the superficial individualistic and illusory sense of security propagated by traditional Buddhism, advocating instead for a socialist way of life and the prompt transformation of a capitalist economic system that is inherently non-Buddhist. Fifth, I discussed the fallacies of nationalistic distortions within traditional Buddhism and emphasized the true internationalist ideals inherent in Buddhism, which comprise the path to genuine liberation for humanity and which simultaneously ensure the welfare of individual nations. Finally, I argued against the anachronism of sectarian Buddhism and presented the possibility of unifying Buddhism under the guidance of the Buddha. Even while these criticisms are emerging, society continues to undergo rapid changes. Numerous problems that have arisen have further validated the legitimacy of our critiques. While theories may remain gray, practice is vividly green. “Actions speak louder than words.” Now, let us attempt to examine the main facts that support our arguments.

First and foremost, in the midst of the deep struggles and challenges faced by contemporary society, let us ask: What kind of salvation or help has traditional Buddhism been able to offer? Does it currently possess the ability or prospects to provide such assistance? Regrettably, the answer to these questions would be “No.”

It is indeed a sad reality that traditional temple Buddhism, which is rooted in the quest for individualistic and illusory peace of mind, has failed to provide salvation for the profound sufferings of contemporary society—primarily the mass suffering caused by capitalism. It is a clear and logical conclusion that such a system, based on self-centered illusions, cannot bring about the alleviation of the real-life struggles of the people. The masses have long abandoned temple Buddhism, recognizing it as a chain of exploitation imposed upon them by the ruling classes. The cry for the rejection and overthrow of this exploitative system resonates loudly among urban and rural populations alike. Despite this, Higashi Honganji temple has now embarked on a campaign using a slogan [that promotes Japan as] a “spiritual nation.” Astonishingly, however, the content of this “spiritual nation” movement is nothing more than a thorough commitment to faith in Amida Buddha. This serves as undeniable evidence that traditional temple Buddhism is an anachronism that fails to grasp the demands of the time.

Zen Buddhism advocates the principle of eihei 永平 (tranquil stability), while Nichiren Buddhism promotes the concept of “establishing the correct teaching for the peace of the land.” Both these movements are stagnant and outdated, lacking any sense of progress. Indeed, despite this, the struggles of contemporary society continue to deepen at an accelerating pace. The impoverished masses in rural farming and fishing villages, as well as small and medium-sized businesses in cities, have awakened from the dream of relying solely on a bureaucratically managed, omnipotent government. The masses are now moving forward on the path of overcoming their hardships through the power of their own unity. At the same time, they are becoming increasingly aware that there is absolutely no other viable solution for the true restructuring of society. It is unnecessary to explain what role these [Buddhist] conceptual movements serve as they are nothing more than ridiculous performances akin to a clown’s dance. They only further prove their complete detachment from the masses and their inclination toward an exclusive temple-based Buddhism.

In this regard, it is appropriate that the young head of Nishi Honganji temple advised, “One scoop of rice is worth more than a hundred thousand sermons,” as such advice constitutes an essential correction to the idealistic and spiritually focused nature of conceptual Buddhism. Lenin once said, “Until there is bread for everyone, no one should have any sugar.” Gandhi also stated to Tagore’s disciples: “First, show them the truth, and then they will see the beauty. The skeletons of men and women suffering from famine in Orissa haunt my eyes day and night. Anything that serves the multitude is beautiful. Let us first provide the necessities of life today. Then, all the blessings and embellishments of life will follow.”

Indeed, in this context, a “scoop of rice,” or the essential necessities of life, such as a lump of brown sugar, are not merely material objects but rather crystallizations of love. They are not simply material substances. It is essential to recognize them as personifications and expressions of concrete personalities and spirits. This belief, discerning the embodiment of personality and spirit in these tangible forms, is the true spirit of Buddhism. Looking up, we observe the brilliance of the stars in the vast sky, and looking down, we hear the supreme voice of the “inner conscience.” However, when we reflect upon the fact that our soul relies on the foundation of standing on the earth with our legs and whole body, we come to understand that the soul is not an entirely separate entity from the flesh, and bread is not merely a piece of matter. Truth, goodness, and beauty must shine within the entirety of life on earth. This realization aligns with the essence of the contemporary spirit, as exemplified by Gandhi, who is considered the embodiment of the people’s practical welfare, proclaiming “truth” in the manner mentioned above.

In the present day, where Copernicus’s heliocentric theory and Darwin’s theory of evolution have become common knowledge, notions such as the Garden of Eden, the celestial realm of Takamagahara 高天原 [Plain of High Heaven], and the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, with its countless worlds off in the Western direction, ultimately hold mythical significance and serve as symbolic ideals that require reevaluation and criticism. Their relevance in the modern context is limited to being recognized as representations of realistic ideals.

After all, as Marx aptly stated, “The supreme reality for man is man,” and it is precisely in this sense that the Buddha, through his own personal realization, exemplified this truth. Indeed, the Buddha proclaimed, “In heaven and earth, I alone am revered.” Furthermore, as Feuerbach announced, “The beyond of heaven, which lies beyond our graves, should be replaced by the beyond of earth—the historical future, the future of humanity.” In this regard, the ideal buddha land that Buddhists aspire to build on the actual earth is none other than an ideal global society founded on the sustained practice of selflessness.

It is always necessary for Buddhism to encourage a proper understanding of the impermanence of human life. However, modern individuals have become awakened enough to no longer require promises of immortal souls or future pure lands in order to find peace of mind. Recognizing the significance of each day’s existence and experiencing the joys of mutual love and benefit in every moment of life, precisely because of its impermanence, is the correct awareness of the soul. We must understand that movements aimed at transforming irrational social organizations, which hinder these demands, are inevitable actions on the part of awakened souls striving toward the ideal of mutual love. In Buddhism, the awakening of spiritual consciousness does not imply indifference to institutional organizations. Buddhism is a dialectical practice grounded in the philosophy of the unity of body and mind. The transformation of capitalism is not solely a problem that can be addressed by Marxist theory alone. Rather, I believe that it is a higher synthesis of these social sciences—one that encompasses the holistic vision of a new humanism—that should be the ultimate proponent of this great endeavor.

Furthermore, let us turn to the current state of Manchukuo, which has been branded as Japan’s lifeline. Why is the management of Manchukuo progressing so slowly, despite the initial enthusiasm? Could it be due to the rampant activities of bandits? Could it be because of the challenges for governance posed by the vast and difficult terrain? These may be contributing factors, but we must not overlook the fundamental root cause, which is the failure to come to terms with self-centered lifestyles. After all, Manchukuo was founded on the principle of five ethnic groups coming together. The crucial factor for success lies in the path of harmony among these five ethnic groups, guided by favorable timing and advantageous circumstances. However, if these five ethnic groups foolishly engage in mutual hostility and confrontation, how can the great endeavor of building a new nation be accomplished? Moreover, it is unrealistic to expect people of different ethnic traditions with a population of thirty million to maintain long-lasting friendship and harmony under a hastily imposed policy. The path to building a nation is indeed challenging. It requires the complete elimination of ethnocentrism among the five ethnic groups, leaving a blank slate for international cooperation. This must particularly be true for the Japanese, who are in a leading position.

In the end, the practice of selflessness taught by Buddhism is what is needed, but it is saddening to see the stark absence of the light of selflessness in the realms of Manchuria and Mongolia. And we must admit that a significant portion of the responsibility for this rests with traditional Buddhist ideologies. This is because, as followers of Buddhism, we should have been relentless in criticizing and guiding our own nation’s actions as practitioners of selflessness. However, we have instead shamefully submitted ourselves to nationalism, becoming its lackeys, thus deviating from the path of selflessness.

One fragment reveals the whole picture. Established Buddhism, which is akin to delusion itself, must be decisively reformed. Since it was fully adopted under the religious policies of the Tokugawa clan, it has continued to wear the shell of a nationalistic, utilitarian religion.

Now is the time for new opportunities; it is the moment for comprehensive reforms. Buddhists should first reflect on the earnest attitudes of their respective founders in their pursuit of the path, and collectively return to the fundamental beliefs of the Buddha. Thus, they should step forward once again onto the path of real purification, armed with the great awareness of non-self, compassion, and equality.

Appendix: Proposed Guiding Principles and Action Plan for the Youth Movement for Revitalizing Buddhism

1. Buddhist Renewal and the Youth Movement for Revitalizing Buddhism

Buddhism is not separate from the inevitable movement of transformation in contemporary society. The youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism has emerged in response to such social circumstances—albeit with limited power. We can no longer find the dynamism for Buddhist revival within established religious organizations. The possibility of revival seems to exist only within the realm of the emerging Buddhist youth movement. Even so, it remains a challenging task, as it is closely related to the issues surrounding established Buddhism that have already been perceived by the masses. However, we must not despair. Just as the efforts of a single dedicated Danish pastor can transform a desolate landscape into a vibrant green forest, the Great Wall of China began with a single ditch, and a raging wildfire of a thousand miles can start from a single match, we should remember that with the awakening and active conscience of even one person, Buddhist renewal is possible.

In this sense, the youth movement for revitalized Buddhism is the sole path for the revival of Buddhism. But what should be the movement’s direction and guiding policies? Let me briefly state my beliefs on this matter.

2. Policies of the Youth Movement for Revitalizing Buddhism

a. The youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism should firmly reject sectarianism or being coopted by sectarian interests. Rather, it should be a pioneering movement for the reconciliation and integration of Buddhism, transcending sectarian absolutism in the name of the Buddha alone. The dissolution of sectarian divisions is not only a necessary trend resulting from a critical reevaluation of traditional Buddhist studies but also a significant social imperative. As part of the broader goal of promoting harmony and cooperation at both national and international levels, it is crucial for the various sects, which have been divided and in conflict, to make efforts toward unification. While sectarian conflicts are often influenced by economic factors, the essential resolution of such conflicts goes beyond the scope of capitalist transformation. However, precisely because of this interrelation [between sectarian conflict and economics], the movement for sectarian reconciliation can also have an impact on the transformation of capitalism and is therefore indispensable for the emerging Buddhist youth movement.

b. The youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism must be a movement for the rectification of the nationalist Buddhism that has been coopted by the state. One of the causes of the decline of Buddhism is undoubtedly its instrumentalization by the state. The nation is by no means the ultimate path, and it is the conscientious duty of religious organizations to offer rightful criticism of its sinful actions. In the past, it was the founder of the nenbutsu [Hōnen] who, warning against the unrighteousness of the state that resulted in the invasion of the Mongols, proclaimed: “The sovereign and his ministers are at odds with the law.” It was the practitioner of the Lotus Sutra [Nichiren] who called for introspection on the unrighteousness of the nation when faced with the invasion of the Mongols. And it was the Zen master of Eihei [Dōgen] who boldly rejected the invitation of the ruler, dedicating himself to practice “for the sake of one or even a half of a person.” However, contemporary Buddhist organizations have completely embraced their role as instruments of the ruling class without uttering the cry of “Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s.” Indeed, it was the Qin 秦 [221–206 BCE] that caused their own downfall, not the six states. Those who bring harm to their own country are the ones who lack critical love for their homeland. The yearning for truth should surpass mere patriotism. In this way, the entire world, and therefore the homeland as well, can progress toward eternal peace. The nationalist transformation of established Buddhist organizations is a desecration of Buddhism. The youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism must be the movement that brings about this reckoning.

c. As a consequence of the above (b.), the youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism must be promoted on an international scale.

d. The primary focus of the youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism should shift from individualistic and abstract preaching to a movement for social and economic liberation. Therefore, this concrete movement must involve a direct and indirect transformation of capitalism. However, the contradictions and limitations inherent in human nature, which are experienced as a dialectical interplay between privileged creativity and inherent restraint, suggest that complete liberation cannot be achieved solely through scientific understanding and economic emancipation. Therefore, while affirming the potential of individualistic evangelism, true liberation is believed to be found in the practice of selfless love and the realization of genuine contentment that transcends time and space within the context of the practice of selfless love on earth. Thus, the transformation of self-interested, non-Buddhist capitalism into a cooperative society should not be viewed merely as an economic movement; it must indeed become a new idealistic and humanistic Buddhist movement as well as an historical development aimed at creating a pure land of enlightenment.

Capitalism is the Satan of the modern age. Therefore, it is crucial to remember that a significant portion of contemporary social suffering is being generated within the context of capitalist relations. In such a context, the stubborn attachment to individualistic and idealistic evangelism should be seen as nothing more than an acceptance of the selfish demands of the exploiting class or as an oppressive opiate imposed upon the exploited class. It is crucial to keep this in mind.

e. The youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism must not ignore the social dynamics of class struggle. It is essential to recognize the dialectical development of society and actively join the liberation front of the emerging class, strengthening various concrete movements while simultaneously achieving personal purification. Moreover, the consciousness of the emerging class should not be limited to mere economic struggles or economic liberation. They [i.e. the workers] should be seen as the chosen warriors for the liberation of all humanity, embracing their role as bodhisattvas in the construction of a buddha land in this world!

f. The youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism should emphasize a contemporary practice of the precepts, [the spirit of] which has been lost within established religious organizations. Precepts are not only an essential requirement for the sincere pursuit of practice and personal growth but also a crucial condition for the progress of the entire movement. For example, it is essential to address the significant issue that the failure of proletarian movements can be attributed, at least in part, to the personal shortcomings of the fighters involved. This should not be overlooked.

3. The Guiding Principles of the Youth Movement for Revitalizing Buddhism

I believe that the most appropriate guiding principles for the youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism are the Three Refuges: (1) taking refuge in the Buddha, (2) taking refuge in the Dharma, and (3) taking refuge in the sangha. I consider this issue to have already been resolved for progressive Buddhists. As Marx said, “Humanity only poses problems that it can itself solve.” For example, at last year’s All Japan Buddhist Youth Federation meeting, representatives of various denominations chanted the “Three Refuges” in unison under the leadership of Dr. Takakusu. This is a most vivid example. If that gathering had taken place without any awareness of the need for contemporary revisions to established organizations, it would have been a clear demonstration of each participant’s lack of morality and faith. This is because the diverse teachings and histories of the various sects are fundamentally incompatible.

Therefore, the “three refuges” is not only the most superior form for integrating various denominations but also an appropriate and concise guiding principle for the Buddhist youth movement mentioned above. However, it goes without saying that the “three refuges” should not simply be a revival of the original Buddhist form; rather, they must embody a modern interpretation rooted in the understanding developed within the traditions of Mahayana Buddhism.

Further elaboration on this topic may be unnecessary, but I will briefly describe it for clarity.

The third principle, “taking refuge in the sangha,” is a guiding principle that embodies the belief in the realization of a cooperative society without exploitation. The term saṅgha, like the word gaṇa, originally referred to a body of people who make decisions on legislation, administration, and other national affairs through consensus—essentially a republican form of government. Therefore, it is an ideal guiding principle for the realization of a cooperative society based on nonexploitation and the equality of individuals. Building such a society is an essential demand of the modern masses and a lifelong aspiration of Buddhist practitioners.

The second principle, “taking refuge in the Dharma,” serves as the foundational philosophy for the realization of a cooperative society. Dharma, in this context, refers to the principle of interdependence and the practice of nonattachment and no-self. It negates the concept of private ownership and emphasizes the interconnectedness of all phenomena. We can develop and expand this principle to encompass not only the materialistic dialectics but also a Buddhist dialectics that integrates and transcends them. By establishing a Buddhist perspective based on this foundation, we can advocate for the movements of new idealism and new humanitarianism.

The first principle, “taking refuge in the Buddha,” implies reverence toward the Buddha Śākyamuni as the ideal exemplar and guide for the experiences and transformations described in the second and third principles. For contemporary individuals who clearly recognize that “the highest reality for humans is humans themselves” in relation to society, there is no longer a need to rely on abstract ideal buddhas such as Amida or Mahavairocāna. Rather, the highest manifestation of human character demonstrated by the human Buddha Śākyamuni himself evokes a more profound sense of reverence and inspiration through the title of “buddha.” Furthermore, it becomes the essential condition for unifying the fragmented existing religious institutions. Thus, the conscious faith in the second and third principles naturally leads to reverence for the Buddha, which in turn facilitates a thorough understanding of the second principle and promotes the practical application of the third principle. In this way, the devotion to the Buddha and the three principles of self-reliance form an interconnected and integral guiding principle for the entire Buddhist youth movement.

4. Conclusion

In summary, the youth movement for revitalizing Buddhism must embody a contemporary practice of Buddhism. It should decisively break away from the rigid, established religious organizations that are characterized by uncritical conservatism in sectarian studies, temple management, and the idolization of the behaviors of past patriarchs. Instead, it must move forward toward a grand movement for social liberation and global harmony. What we should learn from our ancestors is their fundamental spirit, not an uncritical faith in their doctrines. Doctrinal interpretations must evolve with the times in order to fulfill the Buddhist practice of no-self. This is especially true when it comes to the rigid adherence to distorted traditional teachings. Just as new wine cannot be contained in old skins, the new Buddhist youth must boldly forge ahead. We must carry the Buddha on our backs and take to the streets! To the farming and fishing villages!